https://docs.google.com/document/pub?id=1oXwtTpEDXSZvmwScYW_LGSI-8NmXxnDZrYhzJXH0hHw
This link above is to the current plant database I'm working on for the book, its far from done.
Here is the plant database, some items may be repeated do to different classification families/species etc. I focus on plants able to be grown in USDA zones 4,5,6 but not limited to. As possible pictures will also be added eventually. If you know of something not listed please email me at growingfreedompodcast@gmail.com with a full description etc as you see here along with a picture if possible. Thanks
note: that this data base is not in any particular order as of yet, also most information has been taken from Wikipedia, I will fix errors etc when possible as well as some of the odd charecters, thanks for your patience.
Mullein
The Mulleins genus Verbascum, (also known as velvet plants) are a genus of about 250
species of flowering plants in the figwort family (Scrophulariaceae). They are native to
Europe and Asia, with the highest species diversity in the Mediterranean region.
They are biennial or perennial plants, rarely annuals or subshrubs, growing to 0.5–3 m
tall. The plants first form a dense rosette of leaves at ground level, subsequently sending
up a tall flowering stem. Biennial plants will form the rosette the first year, and during
the following season is when the stem emerges. The leaves are spirally arranged, often
densely hairy, though glabrous (hairless) in some species. The flowers have five
symmetrical petals; petal colors in different species include yellow (most common),
orange, red-brown, purple, blue or white. The fruit is a capsule containing numerous minute
seeds.
Cultivation and uses
Various species have been introduced (and in some case naturalized) in the Americas,
Chicory
Common chicory, Cichorium intybus, is a bushy perennial herbaceous plant with blue,
lavender, or occasionally white flowers. Various varieties are cultivated for salad leaves,
chicons (blanched buds), or for roots (var. sativum), which are baked, ground, and used as
a coffee substitute and additive. It is also grown as a forage crop for livestock. It lives
as a wild plant on roadsides in its native Europe, and in North America and Australia,
where it has become naturalized.
"Chicory" is also the common name in the US (and in French) for curly endive (Cichorium
endivia); these two closely related species are often confused.
Common chicory is also known as blue sailors, succory, and coffeeweed. It is also called
cornflower, although that name is more commonly applied to Centaurea cyanus. Common names
for varieties of var. foliosum include endive, radicchio, Belgian endive, French endive,
red endive, sugarloaf or witloof.
When flowering, chicory has a tough, grooved, and more or less hairy stem, from 30 to 100
centimetres (10 to 40 in) tall.
The leaves are stalked, lanceolate and unlobed.
The flower heads are 2 to 4 centimeters (0.79 to 1.6 in) wide, and bright blue. There are
two rows of involucral bracts - the inner are longer and erect, the outer are shorter and
spreading. It flowers from July until October.
The achenes have no pappus (feathery hairs), but do have toothed scales on top.
Wild chicory leaves are usually bitter. Their bitterness is appreciated in certain
cuisines, such as in the Liguria and Puglia regions of Italy and also in Catalonia, in
Greece and in Turkey.[4] In Ligurian cuisine the wild chicory leaves are an ingredient of
preboggion and in Greek cuisine of horta; in the Puglian region wild chicory leaves are
combined with fava bean puree in the traditional local dish Fave e Cicorie Selvatiche.
By cooking and discarding the water the bitterness is reduced, after which the chicory
leaves may be sauteed with garlic, anchovies and other ingredients. In this form the
resulting greens might be combined with pasta[6] or to accompany meat dishes
Chicory may be cultivated for its leaves, usually eaten raw as salad leaves. Cultivated
chicory is generally divided into three types of which there are many varieties:[8]
* Radicchio usually has variegated red or red and green leaves. Some only refer to the
white-veined red leaved type as radicchio. Also known as red endive and red chicory. It has
a bitter and spicy taste, which mellows when it is grilled or roasted. It can also be used
to add color and zest to salads.
* Sugarloaf looks rather like cos lettuce, with tightly packed leaves.
Witlof
* Belgian endive is also known as French endive, witlof in Dutch or witloof in Belgian
Dutch, witloof in the United States[citation needed], chicory in the UK, as witloof in
Australia, endive in France, and chicon in parts of northern France and in Wallonia. It has
a small head of cream-colored, bitter leaves. It is grown completely underground or
indoors in the absence of sunlight in order to prevent the leaves from turning green and
opening up (etiolation). The plant has to be kept just below the soil surface as it grows,
only showing the very tip of the leaves. It is often sold wrapped in blue paper to protect
it from light and so preserve its pale color and delicate flavor. The smooth, creamy
white leaves may be served stuffed, baked, boiled, cut and cooked in a milk sauce, or
simply cut raw. Slightly bitter, the whiter the leaf, the less bitter the taste. The harder
inner part of the stem, at the bottom of the head, should be cut out before cooking to
prevent bitterness. Belgium exports chicon/witloof to over 40 different countries. The
technique for growing blanched endives was accidentally discovered in the 1850s in
Schaerbeek, Belgium.[9] Endive is cultivated for culinary use by cutting the leaves from
the growing plant, then keeping the living stem and root in a dark place. A new bud
develops but without sunlight it is white and lacks the bitterness of the sun-exposed
foliage. Today France is the largest producer of endives.
Flower of Cichorium intybus
Belgian endive
Belgian endive
leaves unlobed and pointed
note two rows of bracts
Illustration
Although leaf chicory is often called "endive", true endive (Cichorium endivia) is a
different species in the genus.
[edit] Root chicory
Root chicory (Cichorium intybus var. sativum) has been in cultivation in Europe as a coffee
substitute. The roots are baked, ground, and used as a coffee substitute and additive,
especially in the Mediterranean region (where the plant is native), although its use as a
coffee additive is also very popular in India, parts of Southeast Asia, South Africa and
southern United States, particularly in New Orleans. It has also been popular as a coffee
substitute in poorer economic areas, and has gained wider popularity during economic crises
such as the Great Depression in the 1930s. Chicory, with sugar beet and rye was used as an
ingredient of the East German Mischkaffee (mixed coffee), introduced during the "coffee
crisis" of 1976-79.
Some beer brewers use roasted chicory to add flavor to their stouts.
Around 1970 it was found that the root contains up to 20% inulin, a polysaccharide similar
to starch. Inulin is mainly found in the plant family Asteraceae as a storage carbohydrate
(for example Jerusalem artichoke, dahlia etc.). It is used as a sweetener in the food
industry with a sweetening power 1⁄10 that of sucrose[10] and is sometimes added to yogurts
as a prebiotic. Inulin can be converted to fructose and glucose through hydrolysis. Inulin
is also gaining popularity as a source of soluble dietary fiber.
Chicory root extract is a dietary supplement or food additive produced by mixing dried,
ground, chicory root with water, and removing the insoluble fraction by filtration and
centrifugation. Other methods may be used to remove pigments and sugars. Fresh chicory root
typically contains, by dry weight, 68% inulin, 14% sucrose, 5% cellulose, 6% protein, 4%
ash, and 3% other compounds. Dried chicory root extract contains, by weight, approximately
98% inulin and 2% other compounds.[11] Fresh chicory root may contain between 13 and 23%
inulin, by total weight.[12]
[edit] Agents responsible for bitterness
The bitter substances are primarily the two sesquiterpene lactones Lactucin and
Lactucopicrin. Other ingredients are Aesculetin, Aesculin, Cichoriin, Umbelliferone,
Scopoletin and 6.7-Dihydrocoumarin and further sesquiterpene lactones and their
glycosides.[13]
[edit] Medicinal use
Root chicory contains volatile oils similar to those found in plants in the related genus
Tanacetum which includes Tansy, and is similarly effective at eliminating intestinal worms.
All parts of the plant contain these volatile oils, with the majority of the toxic
components concentrated in the plant's root.[14]
Chicory is well known for its toxicity to internal parasites. Studies indicate that
ingestion of chicory by farm animals results in reduction of worm burdens,[15][16][17]
which has prompted its widespread use as a forage supplement. Only a few major companies
are active in research, development, and production of chicory varieties and selections,
most in New Zealand.
Chicory (especially the flower) was used as a treatment in Germany, and is recorded in many
books as an ancient German treatment for everyday ailments. It is variously used as a tonic
and as a treatment for gallstones, gastro-enteritis, sinus problems and cuts and bruises.
(Howard M. 1987). Inulin, the dietary fiber found in Chicory finds application in diabetes
and constipation.
[edit] Forage
This section is missing citations or needs footnotes. Please help add inline
citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (July 2010)
Chicory produces a large volume of palatable and relatively easily digested foliage with a
high protein and mineral content and is suitable for grazing sheep and dairy cattle.
Chicory contains small amounts of condensed tannins (some varieties more than others)
aiding in the conversion of nitrogen to proteins in ruminant digestion. Tannins are also
rumored[by whom?] to reduce intestinal parasites, however, scientific studies have not
proved a direct anti-parasite effect. Studies[which?] indicate that the increased
availability of high quality protein to the animal (perhaps in combination with increased
levels of trace minerals) results in a general increase in animal condition that helps in
reducing worm burdens.
Development of chicory varieties has taken place mostly in New Zealand, with some use in
North America
[edit] Forage chicory varieties
* Puna (Grasslands Puna) – One of the most popular forage varieties, developed in New
Zealand. It is well adapted to different climates, being grown from Alberta, Canada, to New
Mexico and Florida. It is resistant to bolting, which leads to high nutrient levels in the
leaves in spring. It also has high resistance to grazing.
* Forage Feast – A variety from France used for human consumption and also for wildlife
plots.[clarification needed] It is very cold-hardy, and due to use for human consumption it
is lower in tannins than other forage varieties.
* Choice – Choice has been bred for high winter and early-spring growth activity, and
lower amounts of lactucin and lactone, which are believed to taint milk. It is also use for
seeding deer wildlife plots.
* Oasis – Bred for increased lactone rates for the forage industry, and for higher
resistance to fungal diseases like Sclerotinia.[clarification needed]
* Puna II – More winter-active than most other varieties, which leads to greater
persistence and longevity.
* Grouse – A New Zealand variety used as a planting companion for forage brassicas.
More prone to early flowering than other varieties, with higher crowns more susceptible to
overbrowsing.
* Six Point – A United States variety, very similar to Puna.
[edit] History
The chicory plant is one of the earliest cited in recorded literature. Horace mentions it
in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "Me pascunt olivae, me
cichorea, me malvae" ("As for me, olives, endives, and mallows provide sustenance").[18]
Lord Monboddo describes the plant in 1779[19] as the "chicoree", which the French cultivate
as a pot herb. In the Napoleonic Era in France, chicory frequently appeared as either an
adulterant in coffee or a coffee substitute.;[20] this practice also became common in the
United States and the United Kingdom, e.g., in England during the Second World War and in
Camp Coffee, a coffee and chicory essence which has been on sale since 1885.
The cultivated chicory plant has a history reaching back to ancient Egyptian time. Medieval
monks raised the plants and when coffee was introduced to Europe, the Dutch thought that
chicory made a lively addition to the bean drink.
In the United States chicory root has long been used as a substitute for coffee in
prisons.[21] By the 1840s, after New York, the port of New Orleans was the second largest
importer of coffee.[20] Louisianans began to add chicory root to their coffee when Union
naval blockades during the American Civil War cut off the port of New Orleans creating a
long-standing tradition.[20]
Chicory is a common ingredient in typical Roman recipes, generally fried with garlic and
red pepper to add its bitter and spicy flavor to meat or potato dishes. FAO reports that in
2005, China and the USA were the top producers of lettuce and chicory.[citation needed]
Chicory is also mentioned in certain sericulture (silk-growing) texts. It is said that the
primary caretaker of the silkworms, the "silkworm mother" should not eat or even touch
it.[citation needed]
The chicory flower is often seen as inspiration for the Romantic concept of the Blue
Flower. It was also believed to be able to open locked doors, according to European
folklore.
Clovers
Clover (Trifolium), or trefoil, is a genus of about 300 species of plants in the leguminous
pea family Fabaceae. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution; the highest diversity is
found in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, but many species also occur in South America
and Africa, including at high altitudes on mountains in the tropics. They are small annual,
biennial, or short-lived perennial herbaceous plants. The leaves are trifoliate (rarely 5-
or 7-foliate), with stipules adnate to the leaf-stalk, and heads or dense spikes of small
red, purple, white, or yellow flowers; the small, few-seeded pods are enclosed in the
calyx. Other closely related genera often called clovers include Melilotus (sweet clover)
and Medicago (alfalfa or 'calvary clover'). The "shamrock" of popular iconography is
sometimes considered to be young clover. The scientific name derives from the Latin tres,
"three", and folium, "leaf", so called from the characteristic form of the leaf, which has
three leaflets (trifoliate); hence the popular name trefoil. Clovers are used as food
plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species; see list of
Lepidoptera that feed on clovers.
Several species are extensively cultivated as fodder plants. The most widely cultivated
clovers are white clover Trifolium repens and red clover Trifolium pratense. Clover, either
sown alone or in mixture with ryegrass, has for a long time formed a staple crop for
soiling, for several reasons: it grows freely, shooting up again after repeated mowings; it
produces an abundant crop; it is palatable to and nutritious for livestock; it grows in a
great range of soils and climates; and it is appropriate for either pasturage or green
composting.
In many areas, particularly on acidic soil, clover is short-lived because of a combination
of insect pests, diseases and nutrient balance; this is known as "clover sickness". When
crop rotations are managed so that clover does not recur at intervals shorter than eight
years, it grows with much of its pristine vigor.
Clover sickness in more recent times may also be linked to pollinator decline; clovers are
most efficiently pollinated by bumblebees, which have declined as a result of agricultural
intensification.[3] Honeybees can also pollinate clover, and beekeepers are often in heavy
demand from farmers with clover pastures. Farmers reap the benefits of increased reseeding
that occurs with increased bee activity, which means that future clover yields remain
abundant. Beekeepers benefit from the clover bloom as clover is one of the main nectar
sources for honeybees.
T. repens, white or Dutch clover, is a perennial abundant in meadows and good pastures. The
flowers are white or pinkish, becoming brown and deflexed as the corolla fades. T.
hybridum, alsike or Swedish clover, is a perennial which was introduced early in the 19th
century and has now become naturalized in Britain. The flowers are white or rosy, and
resemble those of the last species. T. medium, meadow or zigzag clover, a perennial with
straggling flexuous stems and rose-purple flowers, is of little agricultural value.
Other South African species are: T. arvense, hare's-foot trefoil; found in fields and dry
pastures, a soft hairy plant with minute white or pale pink flowers and feathery sepals; T.
fragiferum, orange clover, with hot-grounded, globose, rose-purple heads and swollen
calyxes; T. procumbens, hop trefoil, on dry pastures and roadsides, the heads of pale
yellow flowers suggesting miniature hops; and the somewhat similar T. minus, common in
pastures and roadsides, with smaller heads and small yellow flowers turning dark brown. It
is a source of high protein.
[edit] Symbolism and mythology
A four-leaf clover
A five-leaf clover
Shamrock, the traditional Irish symbol coined by Saint Patrick for the Holy Trinity, is
commonly associated with clover, though sometimes with Oxalis species, which are also
trifoliate (i.e., they have three leaves).
Clovers occasionally have leaves with four leaflets, instead of the usual three. These
four-leaf clovers, like other rarities, are considered lucky. Clovers can also have five,
six, or more leaves, but these are more rare. The most ever recorded is twenty-one,[4] a
record set in June 2008 by the same man who held the prior record and the current Guinness
World Record of eighteen.[5] Unofficial claims of discovery have ranged as high as
twenty-seven.[4]
A common idiom is "to be (live) in clover", meaning to live a carefree life of ease,
comfort, or prosperity. This originally referred to the fact that clover is fattening to
cattle.[6]
The cloverleaf interchange is named for the resemblance to the leaves of a (four-leafed)
clover when viewed from the air.
Cattail
Typha (pronounced /ˈtaɪfə/) is a genus of about eleven species of monocotyledonous
flowering plants in the family Typhaceae. The genus has a largely Northern Hemisphere
distribution, but is essentially cosmopolitan, being found in a variety of wetland
habitats. These plants are known in British English as bulrush, bullrush, or reedmace,[1]
in American English as cattail, punks, or corndog grass, in Australia as cumbungi & also
bulrush, and in New Zealand as raupo. Typha should not be confused with other plants known
as bulrush, such as some sedges (mostly in Scirpus and related genera).
Their rhizomes are edible. Evidence of preserved starch grains on grinding stones suggests
they were eaten in Europe 30,000 years ago.
Typha leaves are alternate and mostly basal to a simple, jointless stem that eventually
bears the flowering spikes. The rhizomes spread horizontally beneath the surface of muddy
ground to start new upright growth, and the spread of Typha is an important part of the
process of open water bodies being converted to vegetated marshland and eventually dry
land.
Typha plants are monoecious and bear unisexual, wind-pollinated flowers, developing in
dense spikes. The numerous male flowers form a narrow spike at the top of the vertical
stem. Each male (staminate) flower is reduced to a pair of stamens and hairs, and withers
once the pollen is shed. The very large numbers of tiny female flowers form a dense,
sausage-shaped spike on the stem below the male spike — in larger species this can be up to
30 centimeters (12 in) long and 1 to 4 centimeters (0.39 to 1.6 in) thick. Seeds are
minute, 0.2 millimeters (0.0079 in) long, and attached to a fine hair. When ripe the heads
disintegrate into dense cottony fluff, from which the seeds disperse by wind. Typha is
often among the first wetland plants to colonize areas of newly exposed wet mud; it also
spreads by rhizomes, forming dense stands often to the exclusion of other plants.
[edit] Species
* Typha angustifolia - Lesser Bulrush, Narrow Leaf Cattail (America) or Jambu (India)
* Typha domingensis - Bulrush, Southern Cattail (America) or Narrow-leaved Cumbungi
(Australia)
* Typha ×glauca (angustifolia × latifolia) - Hybrid or White Cattail
* Typha latifolia - Common Cattail
* Typha laxmannii - Laxman's Bulrush
* Typha minima - Dwarf Bulrush
* Typha muelleri - Raupo (New Zealand)
* Typha orientalis - Broadleaf Cumbungi (Australia) or Raupo (New Zealand)
* Typha capensis - Cape bulrush
* Typha shuttleworthii - Shuttleworth's Bulrush
Typha plants at the edge of a small wetland in Indiana.
The most widespread species is Typha latifolia, extending across the entire temperate
northern hemisphere. T. angustifolia is nearly as widespread, but does not extend so far
north; some believe it is introduced and invasive in North America. T. domingensis is a
more southerly American and Australian species, extending from the U.S. to South America.
T. orientalis is widespread in eastern & northern Australia, temperate & tropical Asia, New
Zealand. T. laxmannii, T. minima, and T. shuttleworthii are largely restricted to Asia and
parts of southern Europe. Typha latifolia has also been recently introduced into fresh
water creeks and lakes in Australia where the water is shallow and contains levels of
dirty, turbid water. It affects the flow of the water and also filters the water and
catches floating or submerged items, possibly damming the water flow.
Typha plants grow along lake margins and in marshes, often in dense colonies, and are
sometimes considered a weed in managed wetlands. The plant's root systems help prevent
erosion, and the plants themselves are often home to many insects, birds and amphibians.
[edit] Uses
[edit] Edible uses
Typha has a wide variety of parts that are edible to humans. The rhizomes, underground
lateral stems, are a pleasant nutritious and energy-rich food source that when processed
into flour contains 266 kcal per 100 g.[2]. They are generally harvested from late autumn
to early spring. These are starchy, but also fibrous, so the starch must be scraped or
sucked from the tough fibers. The bases of the leaves can be eaten raw or cooked, in late
spring when they are young and tender. As the flower spike is developing in early summer,
it can be broken off and eaten like corn on the cob[clarification needed]. In mid-summer,
once the male flowers are mature [3], the pollen can be collected and used as a flour
supplement or thickener. Typha has also recently been suggested as a source of
oil.[clarification needed] However, the plant's airborne seeds have also been known to
create skin irritation and can trigger asthma.
Starch grains have been found on grinding stones widely across Europe from 30,000 BP
suggesting that Typha plants were a widely used Upper Paleolithic food.[2]
[edit] Other uses
Typha seeds are very small, embedded in down parachutes, and very effectively
wind-dispersed
Typha (蒲, gama?) with/without seeds. Seeds used for Futon (布団 or 蒲団, futon?) before cotton
The disintegrating heads are used by some birds to line their nests. The downy material was
also used by some Native American tribes as tinder for starting fires.
Some Native American tribes also used Typha down to line moccasins, and for bedding,
diapers, baby powder, and papoose boards. One Native American word for Typha meant "fruit
for papoose's bed". Today some people still use Typha down to stuff clothing items and
pillows.[4] When using Typha for pillow stuffing, dense batting material is used, as the
fluff may cause a skin reaction similar to urticaria.
Typha can be dipped in wax then lit as a candle, the stem serving as a wick.
The down has been used to fill life vests in the same manner as kapok.[citation needed]
Typha can be used as a source of ethanol, instead of cereals.[clarification needed] They
have the advantage that they do not require much, if any, maintenance.[5]
One informal experiment has indicated that Typha is able to remove the poisonous element
arsenic from drinking water. Such a filtration system may be one way to provide cheap water
filtration for people in developing nations.[6]
The boiled root stocks have been used as a diuretic for increasing urination, or used
mashing, to make a jelly-like paste for sores, boils, wounds, burns, scabs, inflammations,
and smallpox pustules.[citation needed]
Typha orientalis is used to make compostable food packaging.
Burdock
Burdock is any of a group of biennial thistles in the genus Arctium, family Asteraceae.
Native to the Old World, several species have been widely introduced worldwide.[2]
Plants of the genus Arctium have dark green leaves that can grow up to 28" (71 cm) long.
They are generally large, coarse and ovate, with the lower ones being heart-shaped. They
are woolly underneath. The leafstalks are generally hollow. Arctium species generally
flower from July through to October.
The prickly heads of these plants (burrs) are noted for easily catching on to fur and
clothing (being the inspiration for Velcro[3]), thus providing an excellent mechanism for
seed dispersal.[2] Burrs cause local irritation and can possibly cause intestinal hairballs
in pets. However, most animals avoid ingesting these plants.
A large number of species have been placed in genus Arctium at one time or another, but
most of them are now classified in the related genus Cousinia. The precise limits between
Arctium and Cousinia are hard to define; there is an exact correlation between their
molecular phylogeny. The burdocks are sometimes confused with the cockleburs (genus
Xanthium) and rhubarb (genus Rheum).
The roots of burdock, among other plants, are eaten by the larva of the Ghost Moth
(Hepialus humuli). The plant is used as a food plant by other Lepidoptera including
Brown-tail, Coleophora paripennella, Coleophora peribenanderi, the Gothic, Lime-speck Pug
and Scalloped Hazel.
The green, above-ground portions may cause contact dermatitis in humans due to the lactones
the plant produces.
Uses
[edit] Food and drink
The taproot of young burdock plants can be harvested and eaten as a root vegetable. While
generally out of favour in modern European cuisine, it remains popular in Asia. In Japan,
A. lappa (Greater burdock) is called "gobō" (牛蒡 or ごぼう); in Korea burdock root is called
"u-eong" (우엉) and sold as "tong u-eong" (통우엉), or "whole burdock". Plants are cultivated
for their slender roots, which can grow about 1 meter long and 2 cm across. Burdock root is
very crisp and has a sweet, mild, and pungent flavor with a little muddy harshness that
can be reduced by soaking julienned or shredded roots in water for five to ten minutes.
Immature flower stalks may also be harvested in late spring, before flowers appear; their
taste resembles that of artichoke, to which the burdock is related. Leaves are also eaten
in springs in Japan when a plant is young and leaves are soft. Some A. lappa cultivars are
specialized in this purpose. A popular Japanese dish is kinpira gobō (金平牛蒡), julienned or
shredded burdock root and carrot, braised with soy sauce, sugar, mirin and/or sake, and
sesame oil; another is burdock makizushi (sushi filled with pickled burdock root; the
burdock root is often artificially coloured orange to resemble a carrot).
In the second half of the 20th century, burdock achieved international recognition for its
culinary use due to the increasing popularity of the macrobiotic diet, which advocates its
consumption. It contains a fair amount of dietary fiber (GDF, 6g per 100g), calcium,
potassium, amino acids,[4] and is low in calories. It contains a polyphenol oxidase,[5]
which cause its darkened surface and muddy harshness by forming tannin-iron complexes.
Burdock root's harshness harmonizes well with pork in miso soup (tonjiru) and with
Japanese-style pilaf (takikomi gohan).
Dandelion and burdock is today a soft drink that has long been popular in the United
Kingdom, which has its origins in hedgerow mead commonly drunk in the medieval
period.[citation needed] Burdock is believed to be a galactagogue, a substance that
increases lactation, but it is sometimes recommended to be avoided during pregnancy based
on animal studies that show components of burdock to cause uterus stimulation.[6]
In parts of the US (notably western New York), burdock stalks are eaten as a substitute for
cardoon. The stalks are peeled, scrubbed, boiled in salt water, and fried in an egg and
breadcrumb batter.
[edit] Traditional medicine
Folk herbalists consider dried burdock to be a diuretic, diaphoretic, and a blood purifying
agent. The seeds of A. lappa are used in traditional Chinese medicine, under the name
niupangzi (Chinese: 牛蒡子; pinyin: niúpángzi; Some dictionaries list the Chinese as just 牛蒡
niúbàng.)
Burdock is a traditional medicinal herb that is used for many ailments. Burdock root oil
extract, also called Bur oil, is popular in Europe as a scalp treatment applied to improve
hair strength, shine and body, help reverse scalp conditions such as dandruff, and combat
hair loss. Modern studies[citation needed] indicate that burdock root oil extract is rich
in phytosterols and essential fatty acids (including rare long-chain EFAs), the nutrients
required to maintain a healthy scalp and promote natural hair growth. It combines an
immediate relieving effect with nutritional support of normal functions of sebaceous glands
and hair follicles According to some European herbalists, combining burdock root oil with a
nettle root oil and massaging these two oils into the scalp every day has a greater effect
than Bur oil alone.[citation needed]
Burdock leaves are used by some burn care workers for pain management and to speed healing
time in natural burn treatment.[7] Burn care workers hold that it eases dressing changes
and appears to impede bacterial growth on the wound site and that it also provides a great
moisture barrier.
[edit] French Cloth
In the early 1700s, Frenchmen introduced these by the thousands into North America. They
used it exclusively as a cotton twill. But once the cotton gin was invented, the Frenchmen
left, and the burdock spread incredibly quickly.[citation needed] The Frenchmen left during
the windy season, and it spread even more. Burdock is considered an invasive species in
North America.
[edit] Burdock and Velcro
After taking his dog for a walk one day in the early 1940s, George de Mestral, a Swiss
inventor, became curious about the seeds of the burdock plant that had attached themselves
to his clothes and to the dog's fur. Under a microscope, he looked closely at the
hook-and-loop system that the seeds use to hitchhike on passing animals aiding seed
dispersal, and he realised that the same approach could be used to join other things
together. The result was Velcro.[3]
[edit] Tolstoy
The Russian writer Leo Tolstoy wrote in his journal, in 1896, about a tiny shoot of burdock
he saw in a ploughed field, "black from dust but still alive and red in the center … It
makes me want to write. It asserts life to the end, and alone in the midst of the whole
field, somehow or other had asserted it."
[edit] Species
* Arctium lappa : Greater Burdock, Gobō
* Arctium minus : Lesser Burdock, Burweed, Louse-bur, Button-bur
o Arctium minus nemorosum (=Arctium vulgare) : Woodland Burdock, Wood Burdock
* Arctium pubens : Common Burdock
* Arctium tomentosum : Downy Burdock, Woolly Burdock
[edit] Safety
Because the roots of burdock resemble those of Deadly nightshade (also known as belladonna
or Atropa belladonna), which is extremely poisonous, it is sometimes cautioned as a safety
risk. Given that the plants above ground are readily distinguishable, and chiefly because
their habitats rarely overlap, it is unlikely that the toxic plant's root should be found
beneath the foliage of the edible one's. However, positive identification is a necessary
precondition to the consumption of any wild plant.
Asparagus
Asparagus officinalis is a spring vegetable, a flowering perennial[1] plant species in the
genus Asparagus. It was once classified in the lily family, like its allium cousins, onions
and garlic, but the Liliaceae have been split and the onion-like plants are now in the
family Alliaceae and asparagus in the Asparagaceae. Asparagus officinalis is native to most
of Europe, northern Africa and western Asia,[2][3][4] and is widely cultivated as a
vegetable crop.
Biology
Asparagus is a herbaceous perennial plant growing to 100–150 centimetres (39–59 in) tall,
with stout stems with much-branched feathery foliage. The "leaves" are in fact needle-like
cladodes (modified stems) in the axils of scale leaves; they are 6–32 millimetres (0.24–1.3
in) long and 1 millimeter (0.039 in) broad, and clustered 4–15 together. The root system is
adventitious and the root type is fasciculated. The flowers are bell-shaped, greenish-white
to yellowish, 4.5–6.5 millimeters (0.18–0.26 in) long, with six tepals partially fused
together at the base; they are produced singly or in clusters of 2–3 in the junctions of
the branchlets. It is usually dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants,
but sometimes hermaphrodite flowers are found. The fruit is a small red berry 6–10 mm
diameter, which is poisonous to humans.[5]
Plants native to the western coasts of Europe (from northern Spain north to Ireland, Great
Britain, and northwest Germany) are treated as Asparagus officinalis subsp. prostratus
(Dumort.) Corb., distinguished by its low-growing, often prostrate stems growing to only
30–70 centimeters (12–28 in) high, and shorter cladodes 2–18 millimeters (0.079–0.71 in)
long.[2][6] It is treated as a distinct species Asparagus prostratus Dumort by some
authors.[7][8]
[edit] History
Asparagus has been used from early times as a vegetable and medicine, owing to its delicate
flavor and diuretic properties. There is a recipe for cooking asparagus in the oldest
surviving book of recipes, Apicius’s third century AD De re coquinaria, Book III. It was
cultivated by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, who ate it fresh when in season and
dried the vegetable for use in winter. Asparagus is pictured on an Egyptian frieze dating
to 3000 B.C. France’s Louis XIV had special greenhouses built for growing it.[9]
It lost its popularity in the Middle Ages but returned to favor in the seventeenth
century.[10]
[edit] Uses
[edit] Culinary
Three types of asparagus on a shop display, with white asparagus at the back and green
asparagus in the middle. The plant at the front is Ornithogalum pyrenaicum, commonly called
wild asparagus, and sometimes "Bath Asparagus".
Only young asparagus shoots are commonly eaten: once the buds start to open the shoots
quickly turn woody and become strongly flavoured.
Asparagus is low in calories and is very low in sodium. It is a good source of vitamin B6,
calcium, magnesium and zinc, and a very good source of dietary fiber, protein, vitamin A,
vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, rutin, niacin, folic acid, iron,
phosphorus, potassium, copper, manganese and selenium[citation needed], as well as
chromium, a trace mineral that enhances the ability of insulin to transport glucose from
the bloodstream into cells[citation needed]. The amino acid asparagine gets its name from
asparagus, the asparagus plant being rich in this compound.
The shoots are prepared and served in a number of ways around the world, typically as an
appetizer[11] or vegetable side dish. In Asian-style cooking, asparagus is often
stir-fried. Cantonese restaurants in the United States often serve asparagus stir-fried
with chicken, shrimp, or beef, and also wrapped in bacon. Asparagus may also be quickly
grilled over charcoal or hardwood embers. It is also used as an ingredient in some stews
and soups. In the French style, it is often boiled or steamed and served with hollandaise
sauce, melted butter or olive oil, Parmesan cheese or mayonnaise. Tall, narrow asparagus
cooking pots allow the shoots to be steamed gently, their tips staying out of the water. In
recent years, almost as a cycle dating back to early culinary habits, asparagus has
regained its popularity eaten raw as a component of a salad.[12]
Asparagus can also be pickled and stored for several years. Some brands may label shoots
prepared this way as "marinated."
The bottom portion of asparagus often contains sand and dirt and therefore thorough
cleaning is generally advised in cooking asparagus.
Green asparagus is eaten worldwide, though the availability of imports throughout the year
has made it less of a delicacy than it once was.[6] However, in the UK, due to the short
growing season and demand for local produce, asparagus commands a premium and the
"asparagus season is a highlight of the foodie calendar."[13] In continental northern
Europe, there is also a strong seasonal following for local white asparagus, nicknamed
"white gold".
German botanical illustration of asparagus
[edit] Medicinal
The second century physician Galen described asparagus as "cleansing and healing."
Nutrition studies have shown that asparagus is a low-calorie source of folate and
potassium. Its stalks are high in antioxidants. "Asparagus provides essential nutrients:
six spears contain some 135 micrograms (μg) of folate, almost half the adult RDI
(recommended daily intake), 20 milligrams of potassium," notes an article in Reader's
Digest. Research suggests folate is key in taming homocysteine, a substance implicated in
heart disease. Folate is also critical for pregnant women, since it protects against neural
tube defects in babies. Several studies indicate that getting plenty of potassium may
reduce the loss of calcium from the body.
Particularly green asparagus is a good source of vitamin C. Vitamin C helps the body
produce and maintain collagen, the major structural protein component of the body's
connective tissues.
"Asparagus has long been recognized for its medicinal properties," wrote D. Onstad, author
of Whole Foods Companion: A Guide for Adventurous Cooks, Curious Shoppers and Lovers of
Natural Foods. "Asparagus contains substances that act as a diuretic, neutralize ammonia
that makes us tired, and protect small blood vessels from rupturing. Its fiber content
makes it a laxative too." It should be noted, however, that ammonia only "makes us tired"
if we are in end stage liver failure.
[edit] Cultivation
Green asparagus for sale in New York City.
See also: List of asparagus diseases
Since asparagus often originates in maritime habitats, it thrives in soils that are too
saline for normal weeds to grow in. Thus a little salt was traditionally used to suppress
weeds in beds intended for asparagus; this has the disadvantage that the soil cannot be
used for anything else. Some places are better for growing asparagus than others. The
fertility of the soil is a large factor. "Crowns" are planted in winter, and the first
shoots appear in spring; the first pickings or "thinnings" are known as sprue asparagus.
Sprue have thin stems.[14]
White asparagus, known as spargel, is cultivated by denying the plants light while they are
being grown. Less bitter than the green variety, it is very popular in the Netherlands,
France, Belgium and Germany where 57,000 tonnes (61% of consumer demands) are produced
annually.[15]
Purple asparagus differs from its green and white counterparts, having high sugar and low
fibre levels. Purple asparagus was originally developed in Italy and commercialised under
the variety name Violetto d'Albenga. Since then, breeding work has continued in countries
such as the United States and New Zealand.[verification needed]
In northwestern Europe, the season for asparagus production is short, traditionally
beginning on April 23 and ending on Midsummer Day.[16]
[edit] Companion planting
Asparagus is a useful companion plant for tomatoes. The tomato plant repels the asparagus
beetle, as do several other common companion plants of tomatoes. Meanwhile, asparagus may
repel some harmful root nematodes that affect tomato plants.[
Amaranth
Amaranthus, collectively known as amaranth, is a cosmopolitan genus of herbs. Approximately
60 species are recognized, with inflorescences and foliage ranging from purple and red to
gold. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely
related genus Celosia.
Although several species are often considered weeds, people around the world value
amaranths as leaf vegetables, cereals, and ornamentals. A traditional food plant in Africa,
amaranth has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural
development and support sustainable landcare.[1]
The ultimate root of "amaranth" is the Greek ἀμάραντος[2] (amarantos) "unfading" with the
Greek word for "flower" ἄνθος (anthos) factoring into the word's development as "amaranth"
- the more correct "amarant" is an archaic variant.
Systematics
Amaranthus shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain
species. Although the family (Amaranthaceae) is distinctive, the genus has few
distinguishing characters among the 70 species included.[3] This complicates taxonomy and
Amaranthus has generally been considered among systematists as a “difficult” genus.[4]
Formerly, Sauer (1955) classified the genus into 2 sub-genera, differentiating only between
monoecious and dioecious species: Acnida (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and Amaranthus.[4]
Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was
(and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group.
Currently, Amaranthus includes 3 recognized sub-genera and 70 species, although species
numbers are questionable due to hybridization and species concepts.[5] Infrageneric
classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is
monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification.[3] A modified
infrageneric classification of Amaranthus was published by Mosyakin & Robertson (1996) and
includes 3 subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus and Albersia. The taxonomy is further
differentiated by sections within each of the sub-genera.[6]
[edit] Uses
[edit] Amaranth Seed
Several species are raised for amaranth "grain" in Asia and the Americas. This should more
correctly be termed "pseudograin" (see below). They are highly edible by gluten intolerant
individuals because they are not a member of the grass family and contain no gluten.
Ancient amaranth grains still used to this day include the three species, Amaranthus
caudatus, Amaranthus cruentus, and Amaranthus hypochondriacus.[7] Although amaranth was
(and still is) cultivated on a small scale in parts of Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, India, and
Nepal, there is potential for further cultivation in the U.S and tropical countries and it
is often referred to as "the crop of the future."[8] It has been proposed as an inexpensive
native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several
reasons: 1) it is easily harvested, 2) it produces lots of fruit and thus seeds, which are
used as grain, 3) it is highly tolerant of arid environments, which are typical of most
subtropical and some tropical regions, and 4) its seeds contain large amounts of protein
and essential amino acids, such as lysine.[9] 5) Amaranthus species are reported to have a
30% higher protein value than cereals, such as rice, wheat flour, oats, and rye.[10] 6) It
requires little fuel to cook. As befits its weedy life history, amaranth grains grow very
rapidly and their large seedheads can weigh up to 1 kilogram and contain a half-million
seeds.[11]
Amaranth was one of the staple foodstuffs of the Incas, and it is known as kiwicha in the
Andes today. It was also used by the ancient Aztecs, who called it huautli, and other
Native America peoples in Mexico to prepare ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth
grains are toasted much like popcorn or martala and mixed with honey, molasses or chocolate
to make a treat called alegría (joy in Spanish).
Amaranth grain is a crop of moderate importance in the Himalaya.
Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, and because it is very
palatable, easy to cook, and its protein particularly well suited to human nutritional
needs, interest in grain amaranth (especially A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus) revived
in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially
cultivated. It is a popular snack sold in Mexico City and other parts of Mexico, sometimes
mixed with chocolate or puffed rice, and its use has spread to Europe and parts of North
America. Amaranth and quinoa are called pseudograins because of their flavor and cooking
similarities to grains. These are dicot plant seeds, and both contain exceptionally
complete protein for plant sources. Besides protein, amaranth grain provides a good source
of dietary fiber and dietary minerals such as iron, magnesium, phosphorus, copper, and
especially manganese. It has been claimed to be beneficial in preventing greying of
hair.[citation needed]
[edit] Vegetables
Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable in many parts of the
world. There are 4 species of Amaranthus documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern
Asia: Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus blitum, Amaranthus dubius, and Amaranthus
tricolor.[12]
In Indonesia and Malaysia, leaf amaranth is called bayam, while the Tagalogs in the
Philippines call the plant kulitis or Callaloo. In Karnataka state in India it is used to
prepare curries like Hulee, palya, Majjigay-hulee and so on. In Tamilnadu State, it is
called முளைக்கீரை, and is regularly consumed as a favourite dish, where the greens are
steamed, and mashed, with light seasoning of salt, red chillis and cumin. It is called
keerai masial (கீரை மசியல்). In Andhra Pradesh, India, this leaf is added in preparation of
a popular dal called thotakura pappu తొట కూర పప్పు (Telugu). In Maharashtra, it is called
as "Shravani Maath" (literally माठ grown in month of Shravan) and it is available in both
red and white colour. In Orissa, it is called as "Khada saga", it is used to prepare 'Saga
Bhaja', in which the leaf is fried with chillies and onions.
Root of mature amaranth is an excellent vegetable. It is white in colour and is cooked with
tomatoes or tamarind gravy. It has a milky taste and is alkaline.
In China, the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable, or in soups, and called
yin choi (苋菜; pinyin: xiàncài; and variations on this transliteration in various dialects).
Amaranth greens are believed to help enhance eyesight. In Vietnam, it is called rau dền and
is used to make soup. There are two species popular as edible vegetable in Vietnam: dền đỏ-
amaranthus tricolor and dền cơm or dền trắng- amaranthus viridis.
In East Africa, Amaranth leaf is known in Chewa as Bonongwe, and in Swahili as mchicha. In
Bantu-speaking regions of Uganda it is known as Doodo.[13] It is sometimes recommended by
some doctors for people having low red blood cell count. Also known among the Kalenjin as a
drought crop (chepkerta). In West Africa such as in Nigeria, it is a common vegetable, and
goes with all Nigerian carbohydrate dishes. It is known in Yoruba as efo tete or arowo jeja
("we have money left over for fish"). In Congo[clarification needed] it is known as lenga
lenga or biteku teku.[14] In the Caribbean, the leaves are called callaloo and are
sometimes used in a soup called pepperpot soup.
In Greece, Green Amaranth (Amaranthus viridis) is a popular dish and is called vlita or
vleeta. It's boiled, then served with olive oil and lemon like a salad, usually alongside
fried fish. Greeks stop harvesting the (usually wild-grown) plant when it starts to bloom
at the end of August. In Sri Lanka, it is called "Koora Thampala". Sri Lankans cook it and
eat it with rice. Fiji Indians call it choraiya bhaji.
[edit] Dyes
The flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by the Hopi (a tribe in the western
United States) as the source of a deep red dye. There is also a synthetic dye that has been
named "amaranth" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranth pigments known as
betalains. This synthetic dye is also known as Red No. 2 in North America and E123 in the
European Union.[15]
[edit] Ornamentals
The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as Amaranthus caudatus
(love-lies-bleeding), a native of India and a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish
flowers crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, A. hypochondriacus
(prince's feather), has deeply veined lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and
deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes.
Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species
including the nutmeg moth and various case-bearer moths of the genus Coleophora: C.
amaranthella, C. enchorda (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C. immortalis (feeds
exclusively on Amaranthus), C. lineapulvella and C. versurella (recorded on A. spinosus).
[edit] Nutritional value
Amaranth greens, also called Chinese spinach, hinn choy or yin tsoi (simplified Chinese: 苋菜
; traditional Chinese: 莧菜; pinyin: xiàncài); callaloo, dhantinasoppu (Kannada); తోటకూర
(Telugu); Rajgira (Marathi); முளைக் கீரை (Tamil), cheera ചീര (Malayalam); bayam
(Indonesian); phak khom ผักโขม (Thai); tampala, or quelite, (Oriya); Khada Saga, are a
common leaf vegetable throughout the tropics and in many warm temperate regions. It is very
popular in India. They are a very good source of vitamins including vitamin A, vitamin K,
vitamin B6, vitamin C, riboflavin, and folate, and dietary minerals including calcium,
iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, copper, and manganese. Because of its
valuable nutrition, some farmers grow amaranth today. However their moderately high content
of oxalic acid can inhibit the absorption of calcium and zinc, and also indicates that they
should be eaten with caution under consultation with healthcare providers by people with
kidney disorders, gout, or rheumatoid arthritis, concerning mineral absorption and
supplementation.[citation needed] Reheating cooked amaranth greens is often discouraged,
particularly for consumption by small children, as the nitrates in the leaves can be
converted to nitrites, similarly to spinach.[citation needed]
Amaranth seeds, like buckwheat and quinoa, contain protein that is unusually complete for
plant sources.[16] Most fruits and vegetables do not contain a complete set of amino acids,
and thus different sources of protein must be used.
Its seeds have a protein content greater than that of wheat. However, unlike that found in
true grains (i.e. from grass seeds) its protein is not of the problematical type known as
gluten.[17]
Several studies have shown that like oats, amaranth seed or oil may be of benefit for those
with hypertension and cardiovascular disease; regular consumption reduces blood pressure
and cholesterol levels, while improving antioxidant status and some immune
parameters.[18][19][20] While the active ingredient in oats appears to be water-soluble
fiber, amaranth appears to lower cholesterol via its content of plant stanols and squalene.
[edit] As a weed
Not all amaranth plants are cultivated. Most of the species from Amaranthus are summer
annual weeds and are commonly referred to as pigweeds.[21] These species have an extended
period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production[21] and have been
causing problems for farmers since the mid-1990s. This is partially due to the reduction in
tillage, reduction in herbicidal use and the evolution of herbicidal resistance in several
species where herbicides have been applied more often.[22] The following 9 species of
Amaranthus are considered invasive and noxious weeds in the U.S and Canada: A. albus, A.
blitoides, A. hybridus, A. palmeri, A. powellii, A. retroflexus, A. spinosus, A.
tuberculatus, and A. viridis.[23]
A new herbicide-resistant strain of Amaranthus palmeri or Palmer amaranth has appeared; it
is Glyphosate-resistant and so cannot be killed by the widely used Roundup herbicide. Also,
this plant can survive in tough conditions. This could be of particular concern to cotton
farmers using Roundup Ready cotton.[24] The species Amaranthus palmeri (Palmer amaranth)
causes the greatest reduction in soybean yields and has the potential to reduce yields by
17-68% in field experiments.[21] Palmer amaranth is among the “top five most troublesome
weeds” in the southeast and has already evolved resistances to dinitroanilines and
acetolactate synthase inhibitors.[25] This makes the proper identification of Amaranthus
species at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper herbicide treatment
needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes
significant yield reductions.
[edit] Beneficial weed
Pigweed can be a beneficial weed, as well as a companion plant, serving as a trap for leaf
miners and some other pests, as well as sheltering ground beetles (which prey upon insect
pests) and breaking up hard soil for more delicate neighboring plants
Chickweed
Stellaria media, Stellaria pubera,
Other Names: Common Chickweeds, Star Chickweed, Mouse-ear Chickweed
Chickweeds are an annual herb, widespread in temperate zones, arctic zones, and throughout,
probable origin Eurasia. Chickweeds have established themselves all over the world,
possibly carried on the clothes and shoes of explorers. They are as numerous in species as
they are in region. Most are succulent and have white flowers, and all with practically the
same edible and medicinal values. They all exhibit a very interesting trait, (they sleep)
termed the 'Sleep of Plants,' every night the leaves fold over the tender buds and the new
shoots.
The cultivation of this one is not necessary it is abundant and easy to find. Gather fresh
edible plant between May and July, as soon as flowers appear, it can be used fresh or be
dried for later herb use.
Properties
Chickweeds are Medicinal and edible, they are very nutritious, high in vitamins and
minerals, can be added to salads or cooked as a pot herb, tasting somewhat like spinach.
The major plant constituents in Chickweed are Ascorbic-acid, Beta-carotene, Calcium,
Coumarins, Genistein, Gamma-linolenic-acid, Flavonoids, Hentriacontanol, Magnesium, Niacin,
Oleic-acid, Potassium, Riboflavin, Rutin, Selenium, Triterpenoid saponins, Thiamin, and
Zinc. The whole plant is used in alternative medicine as an astringent, carminative,
demulcent, diuretic, expectorant, laxative, refrigerant, vulnerary. A decoction of the
whole plant is taken internally as a post-partum depurative, emmenagogue, galactogogue and
circulatory tonic. It is also used to relieve constipation, an infusion of the dried herb
is used in coughs and hoarseness, and is beneficial in the treatment of kidney complaints.
as an astringent, carminative, demulcent, diuretic, expectorant, laxative, refrigerant,
vulnerary. A decoction of the whole plant is taken internally as a post-partum depurative,
emmenagogue, galactogogue and circulatory tonic. It is also used to relieve constipation,
an infusion of the dried herb is used in coughs and hoarseness, and is beneficial in the
treatment of kidney complaints. New research indicates it's use as an effective
antihistamine. The decoction is also used externally to treat rheumatic pains, wounds and
ulcers. It can be applied as a medicinal poultice and will relieve any kind of roseola and
is effective wherever there are fragile superficial veins or itching skin conditions.
Curled Dock
Curled Dock (Rumex crispus), also known as Curly Dock, Yellow Dock, Sour Dock, Narrow Dock,
sometimes as "narrow-leaved dock" (which properly refers to a variant of Sorrel), and
ambiguously as "garden patience", is a perennial flowering plant in the family
Polygonaceae, native to Europe and Western Asia.
The mature plant is a reddish brown colour, and produces a stalk that grows to about 1 m
high. It has smooth leaves shooting off from a large basal rosette, with distinctive waved
or curled edges. On the stalk flowers and seeds are produced in clusters on branched stems,
with the largest cluster being found at the apex. The seeds are shiny, brown and encased in
the calyx of the flower that produced them. This casing enables the seeds to float on water
and get caught in wool and animal fur, and this helps the seeds to spread to new
locations.[1] The root-structure is a large, yellow, forking taproot.
Curled Dock grows in roadsides, all types of fields, and low-maintenance crops. It prefers
rich, moist and heavy soils.
[edit] Distribution
Curled Dock is a widespread naturalised species throughout the temperate world, which has
become a serious invasive species in many areas, including throughout North America,
southern South America, New Zealand and parts of Australia. It spreads through the seeds
contaminating crop seeds, and sticking to clothing. It is designated an "injurious weed"
under the UK Weeds Act 1959.[2] It is often seen in disturbed soils at the edges of
roadsides, railway beds, and car parks.
[edit] Uses and toxicity
It can be used as a wild leaf vegetable; the young leaves should be boiled in several
changes of water to remove as much of the oxalic acid in the leaves as possible, or can be
added directly to salads in moderate amounts.[3] Once the plant matures it becomes too
bitter to consume. Dock leaves are an excellent source of both vitamin A and protein, and
are rich in iron and potassium. Curly Dock leaves are somewhat tart due to the presence of
high levels of oxalic acid, and although quite palatable, this plant should only be
consumed in moderation as it can irritate the urinary tract and increase the risk of
developing kidney stones.
The roots have also been used medicinally as an astringent, tonic, and laxative. Compounds
contained in the plant's roots have been clinically verified to bind with heavy metals such
as lead and arsenic and expel them from the body by stimulating biliary function in the
liver. The plant is considered a highly effective blood cleanser and is used by herbalists
to assist the body in eliminating heavy metals and to treat other hepatic disorders
Dandelion
Taraxacum (pronounced /təˈræksəkʉm/) is a large genus of flowering plants in the family
Asteraceae. They are native to Eurasia and North America, and two species, T. officinale
and T. erythrospermum, are found as weeds worldwide.[1] Both species are edible in their
entirety.[2] The common name dandelion (pronounced /ˈdændɨlaɪ.ən/ DAN-di-lye-ən, from
French dent-de-lion, meaning lion's tooth) is given to members of the genus, and like other
members of the Asteraceae family, they have very small flowers collected together into a
composite flower head. Each single flower in a head is called a floret. Many Taraxacum
species produce seeds asexually by apomixis, where the seeds are produced without
pollination, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant.[
Description
The species of Taraxacum are tap-rooted biennial or perennial herbaceous plants, native to
temperate areas of the Old World.
The leaves are 5–25 cm long or longer, simple and basal, entire or lobed, forming a rosette
above the central taproot. The flower heads are yellow to orange colored, and are open in
the daytime but closed at night. The heads are borne singly on a hollow stem (scape) that
rises 1–10 cm or more[4] above the leaves and exudes a milky sap (latex) when broken. A
rosette may produce several flowering stems at a time. The flower heads are 2–5 cm in
diameter and consists entirely of ray florets. The flower heads mature into a spherical
"clocks"[5] containing many single-seeded fruits called achenes. Each achene is attached to
a pappus of fine hairs, which enable wind-aided dispersal over long distances.
The flower head is surrounded by bracts (sometimes mistakenly called sepals) in two series.
The inner bracts are erect until the seeds mature, then flex downward to allow the seeds to
disperse; the outer bracts are always reflexed downward. Some species drop the "parachute"
from the achenes; the hair-like parachutes are called pappus, and they are modified sepals.
Between the pappus and the achene, there is a stalk called a beak, which elongates as the
fruit matures. The beak breaks off from the achene quite easily, separating the seed from
the parachute.
[edit] Seed dispersal
A number of species of Taraxacum are seed dispersed ruderals that rapidly colonize
disturbed soil, especially the Common dandelion (T. officinale), which has been introduced
over much of the temperate world. After flowering is finished, the dandelion flower head
dries out for a day or two. The dried petals and stamens drop off, the bracts reflex (curve
backwards), and the parachute ball opens into a full sphere. Finally, the seed-bearing
parachutes expand and lift out of it. The parachute drops off the achene when it strikes an
obstacle[citation needed]. After the seed is released, the parachutes lose their feathered
structure and take on a fuzzy, cotton-like appearance, often called "dandelion
snow"[citation needed].
[edit] False dandelions
Hawksbeard flower heads and ripe seeds are sometimes confused with Dandelions.
Dandelions are so similar to catsears (Hypochaeris) that catsears are also known as "false
dandelions". Both plants carry similar flowers, which form into windborne seeds. However,
dandelion flowers are borne singly on unbranched, hairless and leafless, hollow stems,
while catsear flowering stems are branched, solid and carry bracts. Both plants have a
basal rosette of leaves and a central taproot. However, the leaves of dandelions are smooth
or glabrous, whereas those of catsears are coarsely hairy.
Other plants with superficially similar flowers include hawkweeds (Hieracium) and
hawksbeards (Crepis). These are readily distinguished by branched flowering stems, which
are usually hairy and bear leaves.
[edit] Classification
The genus is taxonomically complex, with some botanists dividing the group into about 34
macrospecies, and about 2000 microspecies;[6] approximately 235 apomictic and polyploid
microspecies have been recorded in Great Britain and Ireland.[7] Some botanists take a much
narrower view and only accept a total of about 60 species.[6]
[edit] Selected species
* Taraxacum albidum, a white-flowering Japanese dandelion.
* Taraxacum californicum, the endangered California dandelion
* Taraxacum japonicum, Japanese dandelion. No ring of smallish, downward-turned leaves
under the flowerhead.
* Taraxacum kok-saghyz, Russian dandelion, which produces rubber[8]
* Taraxacum laevigatum, Red-seeded Dandelion; achenes reddish brown and leaves deeply
cut throughout length. Inner bracts' tips are hooded.
o Taraxacum erythrospermum, often considered a variety of Taraxacum
laevigatum.[9]
* Taraxacum officinale (syn. T. officinale subsp. vulgare), Common Dandelion. Found in
many forms.
[edit] Cultivars
* 'Amélioré à Coeur Plein' - Yields an abundant crop without taking up much ground, and
tends to blanch itself naturally, due to its clumping growth habit.
* 'Broad Leaved' - The leaves are thick and tender and easily blanched. In rich soils
they can be up to 60 cm wide. Plants do not go to seed as quickly as French types.
* 'Vert de Montmagny'- Long dark green leaves, some find them mild enough to be
palatable without blanching. Vigorous and productive.[10]
[edit] History
Wiki letter w cropped.svg This section requires expansion.
Dandelions are thought to have evolved about thirty million years ago in Eurasia;[11] they
have been used by humans for food and as a herb for much of recorded history[citation
needed]. They were introduced to North America by early European immigrants.
[edit] Origin of the names
The Latin name taraxacum has its origin in medieval Arabic writings on pharamacy. Al-Razi
around 900 (A.D.) wrote "the tarashaquq is like chicory". Ibn Sīnā around 1000 (A.D.) wrote
a book chapter on taraxacum. Gerard of Cremona, in translating Arabic to Latin around 1170,
spelled it tarasacon.[12]
The English name dandelion is a corruption of the French dent de lion[13] meaning "lion's
tooth", referring to the coarsely toothed leaves. The names of the plant have the same
meaning in several other European languages, such as the Welsh dant y llew, Italian dente
di leone, Catalan dent de lleó, Spanish diente de león, Portuguese dente-de-leão,Norwegian
Løvetann, Danish Løvetand and German Löwenzahn.
In modern French the plant is named pissenlit, (or pisse au lit Fr vernacular).[14]
Likewise, "piss-a-bed" is an English folk-name for this plant,[15] as is piscialletto in
Italian and the Spanish meacamas.[citation needed] These names refer to the strong diuretic
effect of the roots of the herb,[15] roasted or raw/fresh. In various north-eastern Italian
dialects the plant is known as pisacan ("dog pisses"), referring to how common they are
found at the side of pavements.[16]
In France it is also known as Laitue de Chien (Dog's lettuce); Salade de Taupe (Mole's
salad or Brown salad), Florin d'Or (Golden florin); Cochet (Cockerel); Fausse Chicorée
(False Chicory); Couronne de moine (Monk's crown); Baraban.[14]
In several European languages the plant, or at least its parachute ball stage, is named
after the popular children's pastime of blowing the parachutes off the stalk: Pusteblume
German for "blowing flower"), soffione (Italian for "blowing"; in some northern Italian
dialects),[16] dmuchawiec (Polish, derived from the verb "blow"), одуванчик (Russian,
derived from the verb "blow").[citation needed]
In other languages the plant is named after the white sap found in its stem, e.g. Mlecz
(derived from the Polish word for "milk"), mælkebøtte (Danish for "milk pot") kutyatej
(Hungarian for "dog milk"), маслачак (derived from the Serbian word маслац, meaning
"butter").[citation needed] Also the Lithuanian name kiaulpienė can be translated as "sow
milk"[citation needed], and similarly, in Latvian it is called 'pienene, the word being
derived from piens - milk[citation needed].
The alternative Hungarian name gyermekláncfű ("child's chain grass"), refers to the habit
of children to pick dandelions, remove the flowers, and make links out of the stems by
"plugging" the narrow top end of the stem into the wider bottom end.[citation needed] In
Macedonian, it's called глуварче, stemming from the word глув, which means deaf, because of
a traditional belief that says that if a dandelion parachute gets in your ear, you might
become deaf. In Turkish the dandelion is called karahindiba meaning "black
endive".[citation needed] While the root flesh is white colored, the outer skin of the root
is dark brown or black. In Swedish, it is called maskros ("worm rose", named after the
small insects (thrips) usually present in the flowers).[17] In Finnish and Estonian, it is
called voikukka and võilill, respectively, meaning "butter flower", referring to its
buttery colour.[citation needed] In Dutch it is called paardenbloem, meaning
"horse-flower".[citation needed] In Chinese it is called pú gōng yīng (蒲公英), meaning flower
that grows in public spaces by the riverside.[citation needed] In Japanese, it is tanpopo (
タンポポ?).
[edit] Properties and Uses
[edit] Beneficial but often unappreciated weed
A tall specimen, at 85 centimetres (33 in)
The dandelion plant is a beneficial weed, with a wide range of uses, and is even a good
companion plant for gardening, but is often thought of solely as "bad". It has been
described as "a plant for which we once knew the use but we've forgotten it".[18]
Homeowners or hired lawn-keepers often control dandelions with herbicides, and
counter-efforts against herbicide use can create social friction in residential
neighborhoods.[19] However, its ability to break up hard earth with its deep tap root,
bringing up nutrients from below the reach of other plants, makes it a good companion for
weaker or shallower-rooted crops. It is also known to attract pollinating insects and
release ethylene gas which helps fruit to ripen.[20]
[edit] Culinary use
Dandelion leaves contain abundant amounts of vitamins and minerals, especially Vitamins A,
C and K, and are good sources of calcium (0.19% net weight), potassium (0.4% net weight)
and fair amounts of iron and manganese,[21] higher than similar leafy greens such as
spinach. They contain 15% protein and 73% carbohydrates, 37% of which is fiber (27% of the
leaves are fiber).[22] The leaves also contain smaller amounts of over two dozen other
nutrients, and are a significant source of beta carotene (0.03% net weight), lutein and
zeaxanthin (combined 0.066% net weight).[23] A cup of dandelion leaves contains 112% daily
recommendation of vitamin A, 32% of vitamin C, and 535% of vitamin K and 218 mg potassium,
103 mg calcium, and 1.7 mg of iron. Dandelions are also an excellent source of vitamin H,
which aids weight loss when ingested.[citation needed]
Dandelion flowers contain luteolin, an antioxidant, and have demonstrated antioxidant
properties without cytotoxicity.[24][25]
Dandelion contains Caffeic acid, as a secondary plant metabolite, which some studies show
to exhibit anticarcinogenic properties[26][27] at low doses but carcinogenic properties at
high doses.[28] There have been no known ill effects of caffeic acid in humans.[29][30]
Dandelion leaves and buds have been a part of traditional Mediterranean (especially
Sephardic[31][32][33]) and Asian, most notably Chinese and Korean cuisine.[34][35] In
Crete, Greece, a variety called Mari (Μαρί), Mariaki (Μαριάκι) or Koproradiko
(Κοπροράδικο), has its leaves eaten raw or boiled in salads by the locals. Another endemic
species of Crete, which is found only at high altitudes (1000 to 1600 m.) and in fallow
sites, called pentaramia (πενταράμια) or agrioradiko (αγριοράδικο) and which has been named
Taraxacum megalorhizon by Prof. Michalis Damanakis of the Botanics Department of the
University of Crete, has its leaves eaten raw or boiled in salads by the locals.[36]
The flower petals, along with other ingredients, are used to make dandelion wine. The
roasted, ground roots can be used as a caffeine-free dandelion coffee.
[edit] Medicinal uses
Dandelions, flowers, roots and leaves, have been used for centuries in traditional medicine
& medicinal teas, most notably for liver detoxification, as a natural diuretic and for
inflammation reduction[citation needed]. Unlike other diuretics, dandelion leaves contain
potassium, a mineral that is often lost during increased urination. There is also evidence
that this property of dandelion leaves may normalize blood sugar.[37]
Dandelion leaves are believed to have a diuretic effect as they increase salt and water
excretion from the kidneys.[38]
[edit] Bees
Dandelions are important plants for northern hemisphere bees. Not only is their flowering
used as an indicator that the honey bee season is starting,[citation needed] but they are
also an important source of nectar and pollen early in the season.[39] Dandelion pollen is
a common allergen and a common component in bee pollen.[40] This allergen may be commonly
responsible for asthma, allergic rhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis and contact dermatitis
in sensitive individuals.
[edit] Butterflies
Dandelions are used as food plants by the larvae of some species of Lepidoptera
(butterflies and moths). See List of Lepidoptera that feed on dandelions. They are also
used as a source of nectar by the Pearl-bordered Fritillary (Boloria euphrosyne), one of
the earliest emerging butterflies in the spring.
[edit] Culture
Four dandelion flowers are the emblem of White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia.[41] The
citizens celebrate spring with an annual Dandelion Festival.
The dandelion is the official flower of the University of Rochester and "Dandelion Yellow"
is one of the school's official colors. The Dandelion Yellow is an official University of
Rochester song.[42]
At the time of blooming, crowns are made from dandelions by some children and adults.[43]
Occasionally, Japanese horticulturists grow the dandelions.
Field Pennycress
Thlaspi arvense L.
Other names: Stinkweed
Family: Brassicaceae, Mustard
Genus: Thlaspi
Description
Plant height: 10-50 cm tall.
Growth habit: erect annual.
Stems: simple to freely branched, leafy, hairless.
Leaves: mostly alternate, oblanceolate, 2-6 cm long,
the lower strongly wavy-margined to almost lobed, with
larger end lobe, narrowed to a short stalk. Leaves farther
up becoming stalkless, with ear-shaped lobes at base.
Basal leaves few, withering by flowering time.
Flowers: white, in open clusters on branches, with
4 petals 3-4 mm long and sepals 1.5-2.2 mm long.
Flowering time: May-August.
Fruits: pods strongly flattened, oval or heart-shaped,
shallowly notched, 10-17 mm long, with winged edge all
around, the notch 1.5-2.5 mm deep. Stalks slender,
spreading to upcurved, 7-15 mm long. Style almost
lacking, 0.1-0.2 mm long. Seeds about 2 mm long, not
edged, wrinkled lengthwise.
Distribution
Common weed on disturbed ground in all parts of MT.
Introduced from Europe, now spread across N. America.
Edible uses:
Young leaves of field pennycress were used for food by the Cherokee Indians. Even the young
leaves have a somewhat bitter flavor and aroma, and has been added in small quantities to
salads and other foods. However, this plant is not recommended to use for food because its
toxic properties, see below.
Caution:
The plant contains sufficient quantities of glucosinolates to be toxic. During dry periods,
cattle in western Canada have ingested hay containing high quantities of stinkweed, or
field pennycress. Poisoning, death and abortion occurred. Tests of field pennycress showed
that the allylthiocyanate (a glucosinolate) content is sufficient to cause sickness and
death in cattle. Fatalities occurred at about 65 mg/kg of body weight. The amount of this
chemical varies with the stage of maturity of the plant, the highest amount is in the
seeds. Cattle that ingested hay containing between 25-100% field pennycress were colicky
and some abortions occurred. Ensiling hay containing field pennycress apparently prevented
liberation of allylthiocyanate.
Medicinal uses:
The entire plant is anti-inflammatory and acts as a blood tonic and blood purifier. It has
agents that induces sweating, agents that induces the removal (coughing up) of mucous
secretions from the lungs. It is fever-reducing and promotes the well-being of the liver
and increases the secretion of bile. The seed is a tonic. Both the seed and the young
shoots are said to be good for the eyes. The seeds are used in Tibetan medicine and are
considered to have an acrid taste and a cooling potency. They are anti-inflammatory and
fever-reducing, and are used in the treatment of pus in the lungs, renal inflammation,
appendicitis, seminal and vaginal discharges. Field pennycress was used medicinally by the
Iroquois Indians. They made an infusion of the plant taken for sore throats. Pennycress
also has a broad antibacterial activity, effective against the growth of staphylococci and
streptococci.
Other uses:
Seed of field pennycress might be useful for making biodiesel (it is 36 to 40 percent oil
by weight) and a nature-based weed killer. The seed oil can be used for lighting.
Fireweed
Epilobium angustifolium, commonly known as Fireweed (mainly in North America), Great
Willow-herb (Canada)[1], or Rosebay Willowherb (mainly in Britain), is a perennial
herbaceous plant in the willowherb family Onagraceae. It is native throughout the temperate
Northern Hemisphere, including large parts of the boreal forests.
Some botanists distinguish the species from other willowherbs into either of the genera
Chamaenerion or Chamerion, on the basis of its spiral (rather than opposite or whorled)
leaf arrangement, but this feature (which occurs also to a greater or lesser extent in some
other willowherbs) is not of marked taxonomic significance.
Two subspecies are recognized as valid:
* Epilobium angustifolium ssp. angustifolium
* Epilobium angustifolium ssp. circumvagum
Description
This herb is often abundant in wet calcareous to slightly acidic soils in open fields,
pastures, and particularly burned-over lands; the name Fireweed derives from the species'
abundance as a coloniser on burnt sites after forest fires. Its tendency to quickly
colonize open areas with little competition, such as sites of forest fires and forest
clearings, makes it a clear example of a pioneer species. Plants grow and flower as long as
there is open space and plenty of light, as trees and brush grow larger the plants die out,
but the seeds remain viable in the soil seed bank for many years, when a new fire or other
disturbance occurs that opens up the ground to light again the seeds germinate. Some areas
with heavy seed counts in the soil, after burning, can be covered with pure dense stands of
this species and when in flower the landscape is turned into fields of color.
In Britain the plant was considered a rare species in the 18th century,[2] and one confined
to a few locations with damp, gravelly soils. It was mis-identified as Great Hairy
Willowherb in contemporary floras. The plant's rise from local rarity to widespread weed
seems to have occurred at the same time as the expansion of the railway network, and the
associated soil disturbance. The plant became locally known as bombweed due to its rapid
colonization of bomb craters in the second world war.[2]
Fireweed (drawing)
The reddish stems of this herbaceous perennial are usually simple, erect, smooth, 0.5–2.5 m
(1½–8 feet) high with scattered alternate leaves. The leaves are entire, lanceolate, and
pinnately veined. A relative species, Dwarf Fireweed (Epilobium latifolium), grows to
0.3–0.6 m tall.
The radially symmetrical flowers have four magenta to pink petals, 2 to 3 cm in diameter.
The styles have four stigmas, which occur in symmetrical terminal racemes.
The reddish-brown linear seed capsule splits from the apex. It bears many minute brown
seeds, about 300 to 400 per capsule and 80,000 per plant. The seeds have silky hairs to aid
wind dispersal and are very easily spread by the wind, often becoming a weed and a dominant
species on disturbed ground. Once established, the plants also spread extensively by
underground roots, an individual plant eventually forming a large patch.
The leaves of fireweed are unique in that the leaf veins are circular and do not terminate
on the edges of the leaf, but form circular loops and join together inside the outer leaf
margins. This feature makes the plants very easy to identify in all stages of growth. When
fireweed first emerges in early spring, it can closely resemble several highly toxic
members of the lily family, however, it is easily identified by its unique leaf vein
structure.
[edit] Uses
The young shoots were often collected in the spring by Native American people and mixed
with other greens. They are best when young and tender; as the plant matures the leaves
become tough and somewhat bitter. The southeast Native Americans use the stems in the
stage. They are peeled and eaten raw. When properly prepared soon after picking they are a
good source of vitamin C and pro-vitamin A. The Dena'ina add fireweed to their dogs' food.
Fireweed is also a medicine of the Upper Inlet Dena'ina, who treat pus-filled boils or cuts
by placing a piece of the raw stem on the afflicted area. This is said to draw the pus out
of the cut or boil and prevents a cut with pus in it from healing over too quickly.
A flowering fireweed plant
The root can be roasted after scraping off the outside, but often tastes bitter. To
mitigate this, the root is collected before the plant flowers and the brown thread in the
middle removed.
In Alaska, candies, syrups, jellies, and even ice cream are made from fireweed. Monofloral
honey made primarily from fireweed nectar has a distinctive, spiced flavor.
In Russia, its leaves were often used as tea substitute and were even exported, known in
Western Europe as Kapor tea. Fireweed leaves can undergo fermentation, much like real tea.
Today, Kapor tea is still occasionally consumed though not commercially important.
[edit] In habitat restoration
Because fireweed can colonize disturbed sites, even following an old oil spill, it is often
used to reestablish vegetation. It grows in (and is native to) a variety of temperate to
arctic ecosystems. Although it is also grown as an ornamental plant, some may find it too
aggressive in that context.[3]
Purslane
Portulaca oleracea (Common Purslane, also known as Verdolaga, Pigweed, Little Hogweed or
Pusley), is an annual succulent in the family Portulacaceae, which can reach 40 cm in
height. About 40 varieties are currently cultivated.[1] It has an extensive old-world
distribution extending from North Africa through the Middle East and the Indian
Subcontinent to Malesia and Australasia. The species status in the New World is uncertain:
it is generally considered an exotic weed; however, there is evidence that the species was
in Crawford Lake deposits (Ontario) in 1430-89 AD, suggesting that it reached North America
in the pre-Columbian era.[2] It is naturalised elsewhere and in some regions is considered
an invasive weed. It has smooth, reddish, mostly prostrate stems and alternate leaves
clustered at stem joints and ends. The yellow flowers have five regular parts and are up to
6 mm wide. The flowers appear depending upon rainfall and may occur year round. The flowers
open singly at the center of the leaf cluster for only a few hours on sunny mornings. Seeds
are formed in a tiny pod, which opens when the seeds are ready. Purslane has a taproot with
fibrous secondary roots and is able to tolerate poor, compacted soils and drought.
Culinary usage
A Purslane cultivar grown as a vegetable
Although purslane is considered a weed in the United States, it can be eaten as a leaf
vegetable. It has a slightly sour and salty taste and is eaten throughout much of Europe,
Asia and Mexico.[1][3] The stems, leaves and flower buds are all edible. Purslane can be
used fresh as a salad, stir-fried, or cooked like spinach, and because of its mucilaginous
quality it is also suitable for soups and stews. Australian Aborigines use the seeds to
make seedcakes. Greeks, who call it andrakla (αντράκλα) or glystrida (γλυστρίδα), fry the
leaves and the stems with feta cheese, tomato, onion, garlic, oregano and olive oil.
Purslane contains more omega-3 fatty acids (alpha-linolenic acid in particular[4]) than any
other leafy vegetable plant. Simopoulos states that Purslane has 0.01 mg/g of
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). This is an extraordinary amount of EPA for land based
vegetable sources. EPA is an Omega-3 fatty acid normally found mostly in fish, some algae
and flax seeds.[5] It also contains vitamins (mainly vitamin A, vitamin C, and some vitamin
B and carotenoids), as well as dietary minerals, such as magnesium, calcium, potassium and
iron. Also present are two types of betalain alkaloid pigments, the reddish betacyanins
(visible in the coloration of the stems) and the yellow betaxanthins (noticeable in the
flowers and in the slight yellowish cast of the leaves). Both of these pigment types are
potent antioxidants and have been found to have antimutagenic properties in laboratory
studies.[6]
100 grams of fresh purslane leaves (about 1 cup) contain 300 to 400 mg of alpha-linolenic
acid.[7] One cup of cooked leaves contains 90 mg of calcium, 561 mg of potassium, and more
than 2,000 IUs of vitamin A. One half cup of purslane leaves contains as much as 910 mg of
oxalate, a compound implicated in the formation of kidney stones. However, note that many
common vegetables, such as spinach, also can contain high concentrations of oxalates.
When stressed by low availability of water, purslane, which has evolved in hot and dry
environments, switches to photosynthesis using Crassulacean acid metabolism (the CAM
pathway): at night its leaves trap carbon dioxide, which is converted into malic acid (the
souring principle of apples), and in the day, the malic acid is converted into glucose.
When harvested in the early morning, the leaves have 10 times the malic acid content as
when harvested in the late afternoon, and thus have a significantly more tangy taste.
[edit] Medicinal usage
Portulaca oleracea showing blooms.
Seed pods, closed and open, revealing the seeds.
Known as Ma Chi Xian (pinyin: translates literally as "horse tooth amaranth") in
Traditional Chinese Medicine, it is used to treat infections or bleeding of the
genito-urinary tract as well as dysentery. The fresh herb may also be applied topically to
relieve sores and insect or snake bites on the skin.[8] Eating purslane can dramatically
reduce oral lichen planus.[9]
[edit] Companion plant
As a companion plant, Purslane provides ground cover to create a humid microclimate for
nearby plants, stabilizing ground moisture. Its deep roots bring up moisture and nutrients
that those plants can use, and some, including corn, will "follow" purslane roots down
through harder soil than they can penetrate on their own. It is known as a beneficial weed
in places that don't already grow it as a crop in its own right.
Sheep Sorrel
Rumex acetosella is a species of sorrel bearing the common names sheep's sorrel, red
sorrel, sour weed, and field sorrel. The plant and its subspecies are common perennial
weeds. It has green arrowhead-shaped leaves and red-tinted deeply ridged stems, and it
sprouts from an aggressive rhizome. The flowers emerge from a tall, upright stem. Female
flowers are maroon in color.
[edit] Growth
The plant is native to Eurasia but has been introduced to most of the rest of the northern
hemisphere. In North America it is a common weed in fields, grasslands, and woodlands. It
favors moist soil, so it thrives in floodplains and near marshes. It is often one of the
first species to take hold in disturbed areas, such as abandoned mining sites, especially
if the soil is acidic. Livestock will graze on the plant, but it is not very nutritious and
contains oxalates which make the plant toxic if grazed in large amounts.
R. acetosella is a host plant for Lycaena phlaeas, also known as the American Copper or
Small Copper butterfly.
[edit] Characteristics
R. acetosella is a perennial herb that has an upright stem that is slender and reddish in
color, and branched at top, reaching a height of 18 inches (0.5 meters). The arrow-shaped
leaves are simple, slightly more than 1 inch (3 cm) in length, and smooth with a pair of
horizontal lobes at base. Flowers from March to November, when yellowish-green flowers
(male) or reddish (female) flowers develop on separate plants, at the apex of the stem.
Fruits are red achenes.
Sheep's sorrel is widely considered to be a noxious weed, and one that is hard to control
due to its spreading rhizome. Blueberry farmers are familiar with the weed, due to its
ability to thrive in the same conditions under which blueberries are cultivated. It is
commonly considered by farmers as an Indicator plant of the need for liming.
[edit] Culinary Uses
There are several uses of sheep sorrel in the preparation of food including a garnish, a
tart flavoring agent and a curdling agent for cheese. The leaves have a lemony, tangy or
nicely tart flavor. You can put the leaves in a salad.
[edit] Medicinal uses
This section is missing citations or needs footnotes. Please help add inline
citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (November 2010)
Sheep Sorrel contains constituents including beta carotene, tartaric acid, oxalates (oxalic
acid), anthraquinones (chrysophanol, emodin, Rhein), glycosides like hyperoside, the
quercitin-3d-galactoside.
It has a number of purported uses and folk remedies that include treatment for
inflammation, cancer, diarrhea, scurvy and fever. A tea made from the stem and leaves can
be made to act as a diuretic. It also has certain astringent properties and uses. Other
historical uses include that of a vermifuge, as the plant allegedly contains compounds
toxic to intestinal parasites (worms).
The entire plant, including the root, is used as a cancer treatment,[citation needed] and
is a primary ingredient in a preparation commonly referred to by the name Essiac.
White Mustard
White mustard (Sinapis alba) is an annual plant of the family Brassicaceae. It is sometimes
also referred to as Brassica alba or B hirta . Grown for its seeds, mustard, as fodder crop
or as a green manure, it is now wide spread worldwide although it probably originated in
the Mediterranean region.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Culinary uses
* 2 See also
* 3 References
* 4 External links
[edit] Culinary uses
The yellow flowers of the plant produce hairy seed pods, with each pod containing roughly a
half dozen seeds. These seeds are harvested just prior to the pods becoming ripe and
bursting.
White mustard seeds are hard round seeds, usually around 1 to 1.5 millimetres in
diameter[1], with a color ranging from beige or yellow to light brown. They can be used
whole for pickling or toasted for use in dishes. When ground and mixed with other
ingredients, a paste or more standard condiment can be produced.
The seeds contain sinalbin, which is a thioglycoside responsible for their pungent taste.
White mustard has fewer volatile oils and the flavor is considered to be milder than that
produced by black mustard seeds.[citation needed]
In Greece, the plant's leaves can be eaten during the winter, before it blooms. Greeks call
it "vrouves" or "lapsana".
The blooming season of this plant (February-March) is celebrated with the Mustard Festival,
a series of festivities in the Wine Country of California (Napa and Sonoma counties)
Wood Sorrel
Common Wood-sorrel is a plant from the genus Oxalis, common in most of Europe and parts of
Asia. The binomial name is Oxalis acetosella, because of its sour taste. In much of its
range it is the only member of its genus and hence simply known as "the" wood-sorrel.
The plant has heart-shaped leaves, folded through the middle, that occur in groups of three
atop a reddish brown stalk. It flowers for a few months during the spring, with small white
flowers with pink streaks. Red or violet flowers also occur rarely.During the night or when
it rains both flowers and leaves contract.
Wood sorrel has been eaten by humans for millennia. In Dr. James Duke's "Handbook of Edible
Weeds," he notes that the Kiowa Indian tribe chewed wood sorrel to alleviate thirst on long
trips, that the Potawatomi Indians cooked it with sugar to make a dessert, the Algonquin
Indians considered it an aphrodisiac, the Cherokee tribe ate wood sorrel to alleviate mouth
sores and a sore throat, and the Iroquois ate wood sorrel to help with cramps, fever and
nausea.[1] Wood sorrel, like spinach and broccoli, contains oxalic acid which is considered
slightly toxic because it interferes with food digestion and the absorption of some trace
minerals. However, the U.S. National Institutes of Health have determined that the negative
effects of oxalic acid are generally of little or no nutritional consequence in persons who
eat a variety of foods.[2] An oxalate called "sal acetosella" was formerly extracted from
the plant, through boiling.
The "Common wood sorrel" of North America is Oxalis montana, found from New England and
Nova Scotia to Wisconsin and Manitoba and more unambiguously known as Mountain Wood-sorrel.
It is similar to the species described above, but the petals are noticeably notched. It is
called sours in the Northeast US.
The common wood sorrel is sometimes referred to as a shamrock (due to its three-leaf
clover-like motif) and given as a gift on St. Patrick's Day.
Arrowhead root
Botanical: Sagittaria sagittifolia (LINN.)
Family: N.O. Alismaceae
The Alismaceae group of plants in general contain acrid juices, on account of which, a
number of species, besides the Water Plantain, have been used as diuretics and
antiscorbutic.
Several species of Sagittaria, natives of Brazil, are astringent and their expressed juice
has been used in making ink.
The rhizome of Sagittaria sagittifolia (Linn.), the Arrowhead, Wapatoo, and S. Chinensis
(Is'-ze-kn) are used respectively by the North American Indians and the Chinese as starchy
foods, as are some other species.
The Arrowhead is a water plant widely distributed in Europe and Northern Asia, as well as
North America, and abundant in many parts of England, though only naturalized in Scotland.
The stem is swollen at the base and throws out creeping stolons or runners, which produce
globose winter tubers, 1/2 inch in diameter, composed almost entirely of starch.
The leaves are borne on triangular stalks that vary in length with the depth of the water
in which the plant is growing. They do not lie on the water, like those of the Water Lily,
but stand boldly above it. They are large and arrow-shaped and very glossy. The early,
submerged leaves are ribbonlike.
The flower-stem rises directly from the root and bears several rings of buds and blossoms,
three in each ring or whorl, and each flower composed of three outer sepals and three
large, pure white petals, with a purple blotch at their base. The upper flowers are
stamen-bearing, the lower ones generally contain the seed vessels only.
The root tubers are about the size of a small walnut. They grow just below the surface of
the mud. The Chinese and Japanese cultivate the plant for the sake of these tubercles,
which are eaten as an article of wholesome food. Bryant, in Flora Dietetica, writes of
them:
'I cured some of the bulbs of this plant in the same manner that saloop is cured, when
they acquired a sort of pellucidness, and on boiling afterwards, they broke into a
gelatinous meal and tasted like old peas boiled.'
The tubers, it has been stated, may also be eaten in the raw state.
---Medicinal Action and Uses---Diuretic and antiscorbutic.
Daylily
Daylily is the common name of the species, hybrids and cultivars of the genus Hemerocallis
(pronounced /ˌhɛmɨroʊˈkælɪs/).[1] The flowers of these plants are highly diverse in colour
and form, often resulting from hybridization by gardening enthusiasts. Thousands of
registered cultivars are appreciated and studied by international Hemerocallis
societies.[2] Once considered part of the Liliaceae family, such as Lilium (true lilies),
the genus name was given to the family Hemerocallidaceae in later circumscriptions.
Daylilies are perennial plants. The name Hemerocallis comes from the Greek words ἡμέρα
(hēmera) "day" and καλός (kalos) "beautiful". The flowers of most species open at sunrise
and wither at sunset, possibly replaced by another one on the same stem the next day. Some
species are night-blooming. Daylilies are not commonly used as cut flowers for formal
flower arranging, yet they make good cut flowers otherwise as new flowers continue to open
on cut stems over several days.
Originally native from Europe to China, Korea, and Japan, their large showy flowers have
made them popular worldwide. There are over 60,000 registered cultivars. Only a few
cultivars are scented, scented cultivars are appearing more frequently in northern
hybridization however. Some cultivars rebloom later in the season, particularly if their
developing seedpods are removed.
Daylilies occur as a clump including leaves, the crown, and the roots. The long, often
linear lanceolate leaves are grouped into opposite flat fans with leaves arching out to
both sides. The crown of a daylily is the small white portion between the leaves and the
roots, an essential part of the fan. Along the flower stem or scape, small leafy
"proliferations" may form at nodes or in bracts. These proliferations form roots when
planted and are the exact clones of the parent plant. Some daylilies show elongated
widenings along the roots, made by the plant mostly for water storage and an indication of
good health.
The flower consists of three petals and three sepals, collectively called tepals, each with
a midrib in the same or in a contrasting color. The centermost section of the flower,
called the throat, has usually a different and contrasting color. There are six (sometimes
seven) stamens, each with a two-lobed anther. After pollination, the flower forms a pod.
The common Daylily has potential to become a noxious weed and is listed as such by the
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.[3] While sometimes planted due to their ease of
growth and the fact that they produce a flower, non-clumping varieties of daylily can
quickly overrun a garden. Once established, it is difficult to remove runner daylilies from
the yard.
[edit] Cultivars
'Kwanzo' – a triple-flowered triploid cultivar
Daylilies can be grown in USDA plant hardiness zones 1 through 11, making them some of the
most adaptable landscape plants. Most of the cultivars have been developed within the last
100 years. The large-flowered clear yellow 'Hyperion', introduced in the 1920s, heralded a
return to gardens of the once-dismissed daylily, and is still widely available. Daylily
breeding has been a specialty in the United States, where their heat- and
drought-resistance made them garden standbys during the later 20th century. New cultivars
have sold for thousands of dollars, but sturdy and prolific introductions soon reach
reasonable prices.
The Tawny Daylily (Hemerocallis fulva), and sweet-scented H. lilioasphodelus (H. flava is
an illegitimate name), colloquially called Lemon Lily, were early imports from England to
17th century American gardens and soon established themselves. Tawny Daylily is so widely
growing wild that it is often considered a native wildflower. It is called Roadside or
Railroad Daylily, and gained the nickname Wash-house or Outhouse Lily because it was
frequently planted at such buildings.
Hemerocallis is one of the most hybridized of all garden plants, with registrations of new
hybrids being made in the thousands each year in the search for new traits. Hybridizers
have extended the plant's color range from the yellow, orange, and pale pink of the
species, to vibrant reds, purples, lavenders, greenish tones, near-black, near-white, and
more. However, a blue daylily is a milestone yet to be reached.
Common Tawny Daylily
Other flower traits that hybridizers develop include height, scent, ruffled edges,
contrasting "eyes" in the center of the bloom, and an illusion of glitter or "diamond
dust." Sought-after improvements in foliage include color, variegation, disease resistance,
and the ability to form large, neat clumps. Hybridizers also seek to make less hardy plants
hardier in the North by breeding evergreen or semi-evergreen plants with those that become
dormant. All daylilies are herbaceous perennials – some are evergreen or semi-evergreen
while some go dormant in winter, losing their foliage. Although, there are a number of
northern hybridizers that specialize in the advancements of the dormant daylily.
A recent trend in hybridizing is to focus on tetraploid plants, with thicker petal
substance and sturdier stems. Until this trend took root, nearly all daylilies were
diploid. "Tets," as they are called by aficionados, have double the number of chromosomes
as a diploid plant.[4] Hemerocallis fulva 'Europa', H. fulva 'Kwanso', H. fulva 'Kwanso
Variegata,' H. fulva 'Kwanso Kaempfer,' H. fulva var. maculata, H. fulva var. angustifolia
,and H. fulva 'Flore Pleno' are all triplods that cannot set seed and are reproduced solely
by underground runners (stolons) and division. Usually referred to as a "double," meaning
producing flowers with double the usual number of petals (e.g., daylily 'Double Grapette'),
'Kwanzo' actually produces triple the usual number of petals.
[edit] Culinary use
Dried golden needles
The flowers of some species are edible and are used in Chinese cuisine. They are sold
(fresh or dried) in Asian markets as gum jum or golden needles (金针 in Chinese; pinyin:
jīnzhēn) or yellow flower vegetables (黃花菜 in Chinese; pinyin: huánghuācài). They are used
in hot and sour soup, daylily soup (金針花湯), Buddha's delight, and moo shu pork. The young
green leaves and the tubers of some (but not all[citation needed]) species are also edible.
The plant has also been used for medicinal purposes. Care must be used as some species of
lilies can be toxic.
Stinging Nettle
Stinging nettle or common nettle, Urtica dioica, is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant,
native to Europe, Asia, northern Africa, and North America, and is the best-known member of
the nettle genus Urtica. The plant has many hollow stinging hairs called trichomes on its
leaves and stems, which act like hypodermic needles that inject histamine and other
chemicals that produce a stinging sensation when contacted by humans and other animals.[1]
The plant has a long history of use as a medicine and as a food source.
Description
Stinging nettle is a dioecious herbaceous perennial, 1 to 2 m (3 to 7 ft) tall in the
summer and dying down to the ground in winter. It has widely spreading rhizomes and
stolons, which are bright yellow as are the roots. The soft green leaves are 3 to 15 cm (1
to 6 in) long and are borne oppositely on an erect wiry green stem. The leaves have a
strongly serrated margin, a cordate base and an acuminate tip with a terminal leaf tooth
longer than adjacent laterals. It bears small greenish or brownish numerous flowers in
dense axillary inflorescences. The leaves and stems are very hairy with non-stinging hairs
and also bear many stinging hairs (trichomes), whose tips come off when touched,
transforming the hair into a needle that will inject several chemicals: acetylcholine,
histamine, 5-HT or serotonin, and possibly formic acid.[2][3] This mixture of chemical
compounds cause a painful sting or paresthesia from which the species derives its common
name, as well as the colloquial names burn nettle, burn weed, burn hazel.
[edit] Taxonomy
The taxonomy of stinging nettles has been confused, and older sources are likely to use a
variety of systematic names for these plants. Formerly, more species were recognised than
are now accepted. However, there are at least five clear subspecies, some formerly
classified as separate species:
* U. dioica subsp. dioica (European stinging nettle). Europe, Asia, northern Africa.
* U. dioica subsp. galeopsifolia (fen nettle or stingless nettle). Europe. (Sometimes
known as Urtica galeopsifolia)
* U. dioica subsp. afghanica. Southwestern and central Asia. (Gazaneh in Iran)
* U. dioica subsp. gansuensis. Eastern Asia (China).
* U. dioica subsp. gracilis (Ait.) Selander (American stinging nettle). North America.
* U. dioica subsp. holosericea (Nutt.) Thorne (hairy nettle). North America.
Other species names formerly accepted as distinct by some authors but now regarded as
synonyms of U. dioica include U. breweri, U. californica, U. cardiophylla, U. lyalli, U.
major, U. procera, U. serra, U. strigosissima, U. trachycarpa, and U. viridis. Other
vernacular names include tall nettle, slender nettle, California nettle, jaggy nettle,
burning weed, fire weed and bull nettle (a name shared by Cnidoscolus texanus and Solanum
carolinense).
[edit] Distribution
D. urticaria: close-up of the defensive hairs
Stinging nettles are abundant in northern Europe and much of Asia, usually found in the
countryside. It is less gregarious in southern Europe and north Africa, where it is
restricted by its need for moist soil. In North America it is widely distributed in Canada
and the United States, where it is found in every province and state except for Hawaii and
also can be found in northernmost Mexico. It grows in abundance in the Pacific Northwest,
especially in places where annual rainfall is high. In North America the stinging nettle is
far less common than in northern Europe. The European subspecies has been introduced into
North America as well as South America.
In the UK stinging nettles have a strong association with human habitation and buildings.
The presence of nettles may indicate that a building has been long abandoned. Human and
animal waste may be responsible for elevated levels of phosphate and nitrogen in the soil,
providing an ideal environment for stinging nettles.
[edit] Ecology
The Nettle Pouch Gall Dasineura urticae on Urtica dioica
Nettles are the exclusive larval food plant for several species of butterfly, such as the
Peacock Butterfly[4] or the Small Tortoiseshell, and are also eaten by the larvae of some
moths including Angle Shades, Buff Ermine, Dot Moth, The Flame, The Gothic, Grey Chi, Grey
Pug, Lesser Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing, Mouse Moth, Setaceous Hebrew Character and
Small Angle Shades. The roots are sometimes eaten by the larva of the Ghost Moth Hepialus
humuli.
[edit] Medicinal uses
Detail of flowering stinging nettle.
Detail of immature fruits of stinging nettle.
As Old English Stiðe, nettle is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon
Nine Herbs Charm, recorded in the 10th century. Nettle is believed to be a galactagogue[5]
and a clinical trial has shown that the juice is diuretic in patients with congestive heart
failure[citation needed].
Urtication, or flogging with nettles, is the process of deliberately applying stinging
nettles to the skin in order to provoke inflammation. An agent thus used is known as a
rubefacient (something that causes redness). This is done as a folk remedy for rheumatism,
providing temporary relief from pain.[citation needed] The counter-irritant action to which
this is often attributed can be preserved by the preparation of an alcoholic tincture which
can be applied as part of a topical preparation, but not as an infusion, which drastically
reduces the irritant action.
Extracts can be used to treat arthritis, anemia, hay fever, kidney problems, and
pain.[citation needed]
Nettle leaf is a herb that has a long tradition of use as an adjuvant remedy in the
treatment of arthritis in Germany. Nettle leaf extract contains active compounds that
reduce TNF-α and other inflammatory cytokines.[6][7] It has been demonstrated that nettle
leaf lowers TNF-α levels by potently inhibiting the genetic transcription factor that
activates TNF-α and IL-1B in the synovial tissue that lines the joint.[8]
Nettle is used in hair shampoos to control dandruff and is said to make hair more glossy,
which is why some farmers include a handful of nettles with cattle feed.[9] It is also
thought nettles can ease eczema.
Nettle root extracts have been extensively studied in human clinical trials as a treatment
for symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). These extracts have been shown to help
relieve symptoms compared to placebo both by themselves and when combined with other herbal
medicines.[10]
Because it contains 3,4-divanillyltetrahydrofuran, certain extracts of the nettle are used
by bodybuilders in an effort to increase free testosterone by occupying sex-hormone binding
globulin[11]
Fresh nettle is used in folk remedies to stop bleeding because of its high Vitamin K
content. Meanwhile, in dry U. dioica, the Vitamin K is practically non-existent and so is
used as a blood thinner.
An extract from the nettle root (Urtica dioica) is used to alleviate symptoms of benign
prostate enlargement. Nettle leaf extract, on the other hand, is what has been shown to
reduce the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-B1.
[edit] Food
A young red-tinted variety of American stinging nettle.
Stinging nettle has a flavour similar to spinach when cooked and is rich in vitamins A, C,
iron, potassium, manganese, and calcium. Young plants were harvested by Native Americans
and used as a cooked plant in spring when other food plants were scarce.[12] Soaking
nettles in water or cooking will remove the stinging chemicals from the plant, which allows
them to be handled and eaten without incidence of stinging. After Stinging Nettle enters
its flowering and seed setting stages the leaves develop gritty particles called
"cystoliths", which can irritate the urinary tract. [12] In its peak season, stinging
nettle contains up to 25% protein, dry weight, which is high for a leafy green
vegetable.[13] The young leaves are edible and make a very good pot-herb. The leaves are
also dried and may then be used to make a tisane, as can also be done with the nettle's
flowers.
Nettles can be used in a variety of recipes, such as polenta and pesto. Nettle soup is a
common use of the plant, particularly in Northern and Eastern Europe.
Nettles are sometimes used in cheese making, for example in the production of Yarg[14] and
as a flavouring in varieties of Gouda[15]
In Nepal and in Kumaon region of Northern India, Stinging Nettle is known as Shishnu. It's
a very popular cuisine and cooked with Indian spices.
[edit] Competitive eating
In the UK, an annual Stinging Nettle Eating Championship draws thousands of people to
Dorset, where competitors attempt to eat as much of the raw plant as possible. Competitors
are given 60 cm (20 in) stalks of the plant, from which they strip the leaves and eat them.
Whoever strips and eats the most stinging nettle leaves in a fixed time is the winner. The
competition dates back to 1986, when two neighbouring farmers attempted to settle a dispute
about which had the worst infestation of nettles.[16][17]
[edit] Drink
Nettle cordial is a soft drink made largely from a refined sugar and water solution
flavoured with the leaves of the nettle.[citation needed] Historically it has been popular
in North Western Europe; however, versions of a nettle cordial recipe can be traced back to
Roman times.[citation needed] It is an aromatic syrup, and when mixed with sparkling water,
is very refreshing.
Nettle leaves are steeped in a concentrated sugar solution so the flavour is extracted into
the sugar solution. The leaves are then removed and a source of citric acid (usually lemon
juice) is added to help preserve the cordial and add a tart flavour.
Commercially produced cordials are generally quite concentrated and are usually diluted by
one part cordial to ten parts water – thus a 0.5 litres (0.11 imp gal; 0.13 US gal) bottle
of cordial would be enough for 5.5 litres (1.2 imp gal; 1.5 US gal) diluted. The high
concentration of sugar in nettle cordial gives it a long shelf life.
There are also many recipes for alcoholic nettle beer which is a countryside favourite in
the British Isles such as these.[18]
[edit] Nettle sting treatment
Anti-itch drugs, usually in the form of creams containing antihistaminics or
hydrocortisone[citation needed] may provide relief from the symptoms of being stung by
nettles. But due to the combination of chemicals involved other remedies may be required.
Calamine lotion may be helpful. Many folk remedies exist for treating the itching including
horsetail (Equisetopsida spp.), leaf of dock (Rumex spp.), Jewelweed, (Impatiens capensis
and Impatiens pallida), the underside of a fern (the spores), mud, saliva, or baking soda,
oil and onions, and topical use of milk of magnesia.
[edit] Influence on language and culture
Urtica dioica from Thomé, Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz 1885.
In Great Britain the stinging nettle is the only common stinging plant and has found a
place in several figures of speech in the English language. Shakespeare's Hotspur urges
that "out of this nettle, danger, we grasp this flower, safety" (Henry IV, part 1, Act II
Scene 3). The figure of speech "to grasp the nettle" probably originated from Aesop's fable
"The Boy and the Nettle".[19] In Sean O'Casey's Juno and the Paycock one of the characters
quotes Aesop "Gently touch a nettle and it'll sting you for your pains/Grasp it as a lad of
mettle and soft as silk remains". The metaphor may refer to the fact that if a nettle plant
is grasped firmly rather than brushed against, it does not sting so readily, because the
hairs are crushed down flat and do not penetrate the skin so easily.[20] In the German
language, the idiom "sich in die Nesseln setzen", or to sit in nettles, means to get into
trouble.
[edit] Textiles
Nettle stems contain a bast fibre that has been traditionally used for the same purposes as
linen and is produced by a similar retting process. Unlike cotton, nettles grow easily
without pesticides. The fibres are coarser however.[21]
In recent years a German company has started to produce commercial nettle textiles.
Nettles may be used as a dye-stuff, producing yellow from the roots, or yellowish green
from the leaves.[22]
[edit] Gardening
As well as the potential for encouraging beneficial insects, nettles have a number of other
uses in the vegetable garden.
The growth of stinging nettle is an indicator that an area has high fertility (especially
phosphorus) and has been disturbed.[23][24]
Nettles contain a lot of nitrogen and so are used as a compost activator[25] or can be used
to make a liquid fertiliser which although somewhat low in phosphate is useful in supplying
magnesium, sulphur and iron.[26][27] They are also one of the few plants that can tolerate,
and flourish in, soils rich in poultry droppings.
Recent experiments have shown that nettles may have some use as a companion plant.[28]
Stinging nettle can be a troubling weed, and mowing can increase plant density.[29] Regular
and persistent tilling will greatly reduce its numbers, the use of herbicides such as 2,4-D
and Glyphosate, are effective control measures.
Lamb’s Quarters
(Chenopodium album)
Chenopodium albumIn most temperate climes the beginning of summer is an odd time for
foragers, at least for those who forage for food rather than medicine. The bounty of the
early spring herb harvest is over, the dandelions, nettles and mustard garlics have grown
too big and old, too tough and stringy or have otherwise become unpalatable. There are some
edible herbs that will last into the summer, but very few that will actually reach their
prime at that time. Lambs Quarters is one of those exceptions. When nettles are beginning
to set seed, Lambs Quarter and its close relative, Good King Henry take over as the wild
spinach herb par excellence.
Lambs Quarters belong to the family of Chenopodiums, which translates as 'Goosefoot' in
allusion to the shape of the leaves, which some botanist has fancied to resemble the webbed
feet of geese. This family of plants, though humble in appearance, includes such luminaries
as Quinoa, the fabled grain of the Incas, Epazote, the Mexican bean spice and 'Good King
Henry', a well-known potherb of the Old World. Lambs Quarters is the most common member of
this inconspicuous family, a humble herb that favours waste grounds and other grimy places.
It is now considered an invasive weed in many parts of the US. How low it has fallen from
its once honoured position as a cultivar of the Old World, where it enjoyed some
considerable esteem for its nutritional properties and mild flavour.
From a distance Lambs Quarters always looks dusty, a deceptive trick due to a white powdery
coating on the leaves. On closer inspection this powdery stuff proves to be quite a
remarkable repellent: try washing the herb and you will notice that water simply beads and
runs off. Thus rinsing it under running water can be a bit of a futile exercise, you have
to actually submerge the entire herb and swish it around in order to wash it thoroughly.
Luckily it is not the kind of herb you will often find encrusted with dirt - dirt seems to
be removed from the plant's surface in much the same way as the water. However, insidious
dirt, such as soil pollutants and artificial fertilizers pose a far greater threat. Lambs
Quarters is a 'purifier herb' and in its effort to cleanse the soil, it absorbs these
pollutants and concentrates them in its leaves. Thus foragers should be weary of patches
where this plant grows in abundance - it could be an indication of soil pollution. At the
very least you should investigate what gets dumped in nearby fields or streams. Another
abnormality to watch for is a reddish hue on the leaves, which indicates that spinach leaf
miner larvae are squatting in the foliage.
Lambs Quarters can be collected throughout the summer. The plants come up in late spring
and while tender can be collected whole. As they get older, taller and tougher, restrict
your harvest to the tender tops. Flowers and seeds are edible as well, so you can continue
the harvest throughout the summer. The herb is best used as a spinach type vegetable in
broth or as a green vegetable. Collect plenty if you want to make a meal of it as it
reduces tremendously when boiled or steamed.
It can also be used raw in salads, alone or with other greens. It does contain oxalic acid
and for this reason it is best not to overdo it, especially when eating the raw herb.
People with kidney problems should avoid this herb since the crystals can irritate the
kidneys.
Native Americans used to gather the flowers to dry and grind them into a flour, which can
be used as an admixture to other flours. It vaguely resembles buckwheat.
In some countries (e.g. Canada, U.S.) this herb is known as 'pigweed' as once upon a time
it used to be grown as pig feed. In Europe both Chenopodium album and its close relative
'Good King Henry' used to be cultivated as potherbs.
Common Spicebush
(Lindera benzoin)
This 5-20 feet tall, spreading bush is a native member of the laurel family. The bushes are
usually colonial, spreading by the roots. Crush or scratch the thin, brittle twigs, or any
part of spicebush to release its lemony-spicy fragrance.
The bright green, alternate, toothless, pointy-tipped, stalked leaves are elliptical, 2-6"
long.
Young Spicebush Twig
Unlike other shrubs, some of the leaves never get large.
In the early spring, before the leaves appear, dense clusters of tiny, yellow flowers in
the axils scent the air, attracting early-season insects.
Each tiny, radially symmetrical flower has cream-colored petals and protruding, yellow,
pollen-bearing stigmas.
Spicebush in Flower
The leafless spicebush is festooned with tiny yellow flowers in early spring.
The spiciest parts are the hard, oval, stalked, scarlet berries, each with one large seed.
Spiceberries, Unripe and Ripe
Finely chopped, the ripe berries are a superb seasoning.
They grow in clusters, from the leaf axils of the female bushes, in autumn.
Look for spicebushes in damp, partially shaded, rich woodlands, on mountains' lower slopes,
in thickets, and along stream banks, throughout the Eastern United States, except the
northernmost regions. Pioneers knew that this was good soil for farms, with moist, fertile
soil.
The berries, which taste a little like allspice, are an irreplaceable seasoning for me.
Rinse them, pat them dry, and chop them in a blender or spice grinder. If you have neither,
put them under a towel and crush them with a hammer. Some people remove the seeds, but I
crush them along with the rest of the berries.
Since spiceberries are ripe in apple season, they often find themselves in the same pot. I
love compotes with sliced apples, walnuts, orange rind and spiceberries, simmered about 15
minutes. Spiceberries donít go quite so well with some other later autumn fruits, such as
autumn olives and persimmons. Wild raisins, on the other hand, get a much-needed zing from
spiceberries. The seasoning is also wonderful for main courses, and in pastries, like
commercial allspice.
To store long-range, donít dry the berries. Theyíre too oily, and may go rancid at room
temperature. Spread the chopped berries out on a plate or cookie sheet and freeze them,
then pack into a freezer container. This way, you can remove small amounts of herb as
needed, and your seasoning doesnít stick together. I think 1/2 teaspoon is plenty for a
recipe that serves six, but depends on your personal preference.
Collect the twigs year-round for teas, or use the leaves from mid spring to fall. In one
cup of water, steep either 1/2 cup of fresh leaves (dried leaves loose their flavor) or
twigs, or two tablespoons of chopped berries.
Pioneers called this plant fever bush because a strong bark decoction makes you sweat,
activating the immune system and expelling toxins. They used it for typhoid and other
fevers, and to expel worms. I use a tincture of the leaves, along with wild ginger and
field garlic, plus as vitamin C and zinc lozenges, at the first sign of a cold or sore
throat, and it sometimes works.
The Indians used a spiceberry infusion for coughs, colds, delayed menstruation, croup, and
measles. They used the oil from the berries, externally, for chronic arthritis. Itís also
good for flatulence and colic. Spicebush leaf, bark, or berry tea compresses are also good
for mild skin irritations, such as rashes, itching, and bruises.
Common Sow Thistle
Sow thistles (less commonly hare thistles or hare lettuces) are annual herbs in the genus
Sonchus, after their Ancient Greek name. All are characterized by soft, somewhat
irregularly lobed leaves that clasp the stem and, at least initially, form a basal rosette.
The stem contains a milky sap. Flower heads are yellow and range in size from half to one
inch in diameter; the florets are all of ray type. Sow thistles are common roadside plants,
and while native to Eurasia and tropical Africa, they are found almost worldwide in
temperate regions. Like the true thistles, sow thistles are in the family Asteraceae.
Mature sow thistle stems can range from 30 cm to 2 m (1 to 6 feet) tall, depending upon
species and growing conditions. Colouration ranges from green to purple in older plants.
Sow thistles exude a milky latex when any part of the plant is cut or damaged, and it is
from this fact that the plants obtained the common name, "sow thistle", as they were fed to
lactating sows in the belief that milk production would increase. Sow thistles are known as
"milk thistles" in some regions, although true milk thistles belong to the genus Silybum.
Sow thistles have been used as fodder, particularly for rabbits, hence the other common
names of "hare thistle" or "hare lettuce". They are also edible to humans as a leaf
vegetable; old leaves and stalks can be bitter but young leaves have a flavour similar to
lettuce. Going by the name puha or rareke (raraki) it is frequently eaten in New Zealand as
a vegetable, particularly by the native Māori. When cooked it tastes a little similar to
chard.
In many areas sow thistles are considered noxious weeds,[2] as they grow quickly in a wide
range of conditions and their wind-borne seeds allow them to spread rapidly. Sonchus
arvensis, the perennial sow thistle, is considered the most economically detrimental, as it
can crowd commercial crops, is a heavy consumer of nitrogen in soils, may deplete soil
water of land left to fallow, and can regrow and sprout additional plants from its creeping
roots. However, sow thistles are easily uprooted by hand, and their soft stems present
little resistance to slashing or mowing. Most livestock will readily devour sow thistle in
preference to grass, and this lettuce-relative is edible and nutritious to humans -- in
fact this is the meaning of the second part of the Latin name, oleraceus.[1] Attempts at
weed control by herbicidal use, to the neglect of other methods, may have led to a
proliferation of this species in some environments.[2]
Sonchus tenerrimus and Sonchus oleraceus infest many crops in Italy, especially in the
Southern area of the peninsula. Here they are also considered good taste edible plants and
they are cooked with spaghetti.
In traditional medicine, the plant has medicinal qualities, having "nearly the same
properties as Dandelion and Succory"[3].
Sow thistles are common host plants for aphids. Gardeners may consider this a benefit or a
curse; aphids may spread from sow thistle to other plants, but alternatively the sow
thistle can encourage the growth of beneficial predators such as hoverflies. In this regard
sow thistles make excellent sacrificial plants. Sonchus species are used as food plants by
the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Broad-barred White, Grey Chi, The Nutmeg,
The Shark and the tortrix moth Celypha rufana.
Epazote
Epazote, Wormseed, Jesuit's Tea, Mexican Tea, Paico or Herba Sancti Mariæ (Dysphania
ambrosioides, formerly Chenopodium ambrosioides) is an herb native to Central America,
South America, and southern Mexico.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Growth
* 2 Etymology
* 3 Usage
o 3.1 Culinary uses
o 3.2 Medicinal uses
o 3.3 Agricultural use
* 4 References
* 5 External links
[edit] Growth
It is an annual or short-lived perennial plant, growing to 1.2 m tall, irregularly
branched, with oblong-lanceolate leaves up to 12 cm long. The flowers are small and green,
produced in a branched panicle at the apex of the stem.
As well as in its native areas, it is grown in warm temperate to subtropical areas of
Europe and the United States (Missouri, New England, Eastern United States),[1] sometimes
becoming an invasive weed.
[edit] Etymology
The common Spanish name, epazote (sometimes spelled and pronounced ipasote or ypasote), is
derived from Nahuatl: epazōtl (pronounced [eˈpasoːtɬ]).
[edit] Usage
[edit] Culinary uses
Epazote is used as a leaf vegetable and herb for its pungent flavor. Raw, it has a
resinous, medicinal pungency, similar to anise, fennel, or even tarragon, but stronger.
Epazote's fragrance is strong, but difficult to describe. It has been compared to citrus,
petroleum, savory, mint and camphor.
Although it is traditionally used with black beans for flavor and its carminative
properties, it is also sometimes used to flavor other traditional Mexican dishes as well:
it can be used to season quesadillas and sopes (especially those containing huitlacoche),
soups, mole de olla, tamales with cheese and chile, chilaquiles, eggs and potatoes and
enchiladas.
[edit] Medicinal uses
Epazote is commonly believed to prevent flatulence caused by eating beans, and is therefore
used to season them. It is also used in the treatment of amenorrhea,[2] dysmenorrhea,
malaria, chorea, hysteria, catarrh, and asthma.[3]
Oil of chenopodium is derived from this plant. It is antihelminthic, that is, it kills
intestinal worms, and was once listed for this use in the US Pharmacopeia. It is also cited
as an antispasmodic and abortifacient.
Epazote essential oil contains ascaridole (up to 70%), limonene, p-cymene, and smaller
amounts of numerous other monoterpenes and monoterpene derivatives (α-pinene, myrcene,
terpinene, thymol, camphor and trans-isocarveol). Ascaridole (1,4-peroxido-p-menth-2-ene)
is rather an uncommon constituent of spices; another plant owing much of its character to
this monoterpene peroxide is boldo. Ascaridole is toxic and has a pungent, not very
pleasant flavor; in pure form, it is an explosive sensitive to shock. Allegedly, ascaridole
content is lower in epazote from Mexico than in epazote grown in Europe or Asia.
[edit] Agricultural use
An extract of epazote is the active ingredient of the pesticide Requiem.
Garlic mustard
Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) is a biennial flowering plant in the Mustard family,
Brassicaceae. It is native to Europe, western and central Asia, and northwestern Africa,
from Morocco, Iberia and the British Isles, north to northern Scandinavia, and east to
northern India and western China (Xinjiang).[1] In the first year of growth, plants form
attractive clumps of round shaped, slightly wrinkled leaves, that when crushed smell like
garlic. The next year plants flower in spring, producing cross shaped white flowers in
dense clusters, as the flowering stems bloom they elongate into a spike-like shape. When
blooming is complete, plants produce upright fruits that release seeds in mid summer.
Plants are often found growing along the margins of hedgerows, giving rise to the old
British folk name of Jack-by-the-hedge. Other common names include Garlic Root, Hedge
Garlic, Sauce-alone, Jack-in-the-bush, Penny Hedge and Poor Man's Mustard. The genus name
Alliaria, "resembling Allium", refers to the garlic-like odour of the crushed foliage.
Lawrence Newcomb gives the species name Alliaria officinalis for this plant.
Description
It is a herbaceous biennial plant (sometimes an annual plant) growing from a deeply
growing, thin, white taproot that is scented like a horse-radish. Plants grow from 30–100
cm (rarely to 130 cm) tall. The leaves are stalked, triangular to heart-shaped, 10–15 cm
long (of which about half being the petiole) and 2–6 cm broad, with a coarsely toothed
margin. In biennial specimens, first-year plants appear as a rosette of green leaves close
to the ground; these rosettes remain green through the winter and develop into mature
flowering plants the following spring. The flowers are produced in spring and summer in
button-like clusters. Each small flower has four white petals 4–8 mm long and 2–3 mm broad,
arranged in a cross shape. The fruit is an erect, slender, four-sided pod 4 to 5.5 cm long
[3] , called a silique, green maturing pale grey-brown, containing two rows of small shiny
black seeds which are released when the pod splits open. Some plants can flower and
complete their life-cycle in the first year. A single plant can produce hundreds of seeds,
which scatter as much as several meters from the parent plant. Depending upon conditions,
garlic mustard flowers either self-fertilize or are cross-pollinated by a variety of
insects. Self-fertilized seeds are genetically identical to the parent plant, enhancing its
ability to colonize an area where that genotype is suited to thrive.[4]
Close-up of Garlic Mustard flowers
Fruits and seeds
[edit] Cultivation and uses
The leaves, flowers and fruit are edible as food for humans, and are best when young. They
have a mild flavour of both garlic and mustard, and are used in salads and pesto. They were
once used as medicine.[5]
In Europe as many as 69 species of insects and 7 species of fungi utilize Garlic Mustard as
a food plant, including the larvae of some Lepidoptera species such as the Garden Carpet
moth.
[edit] As an invasive species
Garlic mustard was introduced in North America as a culinary herb in the 1860s and is an
invasive species in much of North America and is listed as a noxious or restricted plant as
of 2006 in the US states of Alabama, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire,
Oregon, Vermont, West Virginia and Washington.[6] Like most invasive plants, once it has an
introduction into a new location, it persists and spreads into undisturbed plant
communities. In many areas of its introduction in Eastern North America, it has become the
dominant under-story species in woodland and flood plain environments, where eradication is
difficult.[7]
The insects and fungi that feed on it in its native habitat are not present in North
America, increasing its seed productivity and allowing it to out-compete native plants. It
is a possible threat to the West Virginia White Butterfly (Pieris virginiensis) and Mustard
White Butterfly (Pieris oleracea); adult butterflies of both species lay their eggs on
native Dentaria or Toothwort plants, but they often confuse garlic mustard plants with
Dentaria and lay their eggs on garlic mustard, because they have similar flowers. The eggs
and young butterflies cannot live on the garlic mustard, because it has chemicals that are
toxic to the larvae and eggs.[8]
A study published in 2006 concluded that Garlic Mustard produces allelochemicals that harm
mycorrhizal fungi that many North American plants, including native forest trees, require
for optimum growth.[9] Additionally, because White-tailed Deer rarely feed on Garlic
Mustard, large deer populations may help to increase its population densities by consuming
competing native plants. Trampling by browsing deer encourages additional seed growth by
disturbing the soil. A complication to the eradication of Garlic Mustard from an area is
the longevity of viable seeds in the ground. Seeds contained in the soil can germinate up
to five years after being produced.[10] Garlic mustard has been classified as
Magnoliopsida.
Garlic mustard produces a variety of secondary compounds, including the flavonoid
isovitexin 6″-O-β-d-glucopyranoside as a feeding deterrent to Pieris napi oleracea[11],
defense proteins, glycosides, and glucosinolates that reduce its palatability to
herbivores. [12][13] Research published in 2007 shows that, in Northeast Forests, garlic
mustard rosettes increased the rate of native leaf litter decomposition, increasing
nutrient availability and possibly creating conditions favorable to garlic mustard's own
spread.
Gingko
Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba; in Chinese and Japanese 銀杏, pinyin romanization: yín xìng, Hepburn
romanization: ichō or ginnan), also spelled gingko and known as the Maidenhair Tree, is a
unique species of tree with no close living relatives. The tree is widely cultivated and
introduced, since an early period in human history, and has various uses as a food and
traditional medicine.
Ginkgoes are very large trees, normally reaching a height of 20–35 m (66–115 feet), with
some specimens in China being over 50 m (164 feet). The tree has an angular crown and long,
somewhat erratic branches, and is usually deep rooted and resistant to wind and snow
damage. Young trees are often tall and slender, and sparsely branched; the crown becomes
broader as the tree ages. During autumn, the leaves turn a bright yellow, then fall,
sometimes within a short space of time (1–15 days). A combination of resistance to disease,
insect-resistant wood and the ability to form aerial roots and sprouts makes ginkgos
long-lived, with some specimens claimed to be more than 2,500 years old.
Ginkgo is a relatively shade-intolerant species that (at least in cultivation) grows best
in environments that are well-watered and well-drained. The species shows a preference for
disturbed sites; in the "semi-wild" stands at Tian Mu Shan, many specimens are found along
stream banks, rocky slopes, and cliff edges. Accordingly, Ginkgo retains a prodigious
capacity for vegetative growth. It is capable of sprouting from embedded buds near the base
of the trunk (lignotubers, or basal chi chi) in response to disturbances, such as soil
erosion. Old individuals are also capable of producing aerial roots (chi chi) on the
undersides of large branches in response to disturbances such as crown damage; these roots
can lead to successful clonal reproduction upon contacting the soil. These strategies are
evidently important in the persistence of Ginkgo; in a survey of the "semi-wild" stands
remaining in Tian Mu Shan, 40% of the Ginkgo specimens surveyed were multi-stemmed, and few
saplings were present.[3]
Trunk bark
[edit] Stem
Ginkgo branches grow in length by growth of shoots with regularly spaced leaves, as seen on
most trees. From the axils of these leaves, "spur shoots" (also known as short shoots)
develop on second-year growth. Short shoots have very short internodes (so they may grow
only one or two centimeters in several years) and their leaves are usually unlobed. They
are short and knobby, and are arranged regularly on the branches except on first-year
growth. Because of the short internodes, leaves appear to be clustered at the tips of short
shoots, and reproductive structures are formed only on them (see pictures below - seeds and
leaves are visible on short shoots). In Ginkgos, as in other plants that possess them,
short shoots allow the formation of new leaves in the older parts of the crown. After a
number of years, a short shoot may change into a long (ordinary) shoot, or vice versa.
[edit] Leaves
Ginkgo leaves in autumn
The leaves are unique among seed plants, being fan-shaped with veins radiating out into the
leaf blade, sometimes bifurcating (splitting) but never anastomosing to form a network.[4]
Two veins enter the leaf blade at the base and fork repeatedly in two; this is known as
dichotomous venation. The leaves are usually 5–10 cm (2-4 inches), but sometimes up to 15
cm (6 inches) long. The old popular name "Maidenhair tree" is because the leaves resemble
some of the pinnae of the Maidenhair fern Adiantum capillus-veneris.
Leaves of long shoots are usually notched or lobed, but only from the outer surface,
between the veins. They are borne both on the more rapidly-growing branch tips, where they
are alternate and spaced out, and also on the short, stubby spur shoots, where they are
clustered at the tips.
[edit] Reproduction
Ginkgos are dioecious, with separate sexes, some trees being female and others being male.
Male plants produce small pollen cones with sporophylls each bearing two microsporangia
spirally arranged around a central axis.
Female plants do not produce cones. Two ovules are formed at the end of a stalk, and after
pollination, one or both develop into seeds. The seed is 1.5–2 cm long. Its fleshy outer
layer (the sarcotesta) is light yellow-brown, soft, and fruit-like. It is attractive in
appearance, but contains butanoic acid[5] (also known as butyric acid) and smells like
rancid butter (which contains the same chemical) or feces[6] when fallen. Beneath the
sarcotesta is the hard sclerotesta (what is normally known as the "shell" of the seed) and
a papery endotesta, with the nucellus surrounding the female gametophyte at the center.[7]
The fertilization of ginkgo seeds occurs via motile sperm, as in cycads, ferns, mosses and
algae. The sperm are large (about 250-300 micrometres) and are similar to the sperm of
cycads, which are slightly larger. Ginkgo sperm were first discovered by the Japanese
botanist Sakugoro Hirase in 1896.[8] The sperm have a complex multi-layered structure,
which is a continuous belt of basal bodies that form the base of several thousand flagella
which actually have a cilia-like motion. The flagella/cilia apparatus pulls the body of the
sperm forwards. The sperm have only a tiny distance to travel to the archegonia, of which
there are usually two or three. Two sperm are produced, one of which successfully
fertilizes the ovule. Although it is widely held that fertilization of ginkgo seeds occurs
just before or after they fall in early autumn,[4][7] embryos ordinarily occur in seeds
just before and after they drop from the tree.[
Goutweed
The ground-elder (Aegopodium podagraria) is a perennial plant in the carrot family
(Apiaceae) that grows in shady places. Its name is also sometimes spelled "ground elder",
though this format invites confusion with elder (Sambucus), a very distantly related genus
with visually similar leaves. Ground-elder is also known as herb gerard, bishop's weed,
goutweed, and snow-in-the-mountain. It is the type species of the genus Aegopodium.
[edit] Uses as food and medicine
The tender leaves have been used as a spring leaf vegetable, much as spinach was used. It
has also been used to treat gout and arthritis. The plant is said to have been introduced
into England by the Romans as a food plant and into Northern Europe by monks. It is also
eaten by Chinese and Tibetan monks.
It is best picked from when it appears (as early as February in the UK) to just before it
flowers (May to June). If it is picked after this point it takes on an unusual taste and a
laxative effect. However it can be stopped from flowering by pinching out the flowers,
ensuring that the plant remains edible if used more sparingly as a pot herb.[1]
[edit] Invasive habit
In some areas, this plant is considered among the worst of weeds, as it readily spreads
over large areas of ground by underground rhizomes. It is extremely invasive, and crowds
out native species. The smallest piece of rhizome left in the ground will quickly form a
sturdy new plant, followed by many more.
If a small plant finds its way into a perennial flower garden it will spread with vigor,
resist all attempts at eradication, and make continued ornamental gardening there very
difficult.
[edit] Ornamental use
A variegated form is grown as an ornamental plant, though with the advice to keep it
isolated.
[edit] Importance to wildlife
It is used as a food plant by the larvae of some species of Lepidoptera including dot moth,
grey dagger and grey pug.
Japanese Knotweed
Japanese Knotweed (Fallopia japonica, syn. Polygonum cuspidatum, Reynoutria japonica) is a
large, herbaceous perennial plant, native to eastern Asia in Japan, China and Korea. In
North America and Europe the species is very successful and has been classified as an
invasive species in several countries.
A member of the family Polygonaceae, Japanese knotweed has hollow stems with distinct
raised nodes that give it the appearance of bamboo, though it is not closely related. While
stems may reach a maximum height of 3–4 m each growing season, it is typical to see much
smaller plants in places where they sprout through cracks in the pavement or are repeatedly
cut down. The leaves are broad oval with a truncated base, 7–14 cm long and 5–12 cm broad,
with an entire margin. The flowers are small, cream or white, produced in erect racemes
6–15 cm long in late summer and early autumn.
Closely related species include giant knotweed (Fallopia sachalinensis, syn. Polygonum
sachalinense) and Russian vine (Fallopia baldschuanica, syn. Polygonum aubertii, Polygonum
baldschuanicum).
Other English names for Japanese knotweed include fleeceflower, Himalayan fleece vine,
monkeyweed, Huzhang (Chinese: 虎杖; pinyin: Hǔzhàng), Hancock's curse, elephant ears, pea
shooters, donkey rhubarb (although it is not a rhubarb), sally rhubarb, Japanese bamboo,
American bamboo, and Mexican bamboo (though it is not a bamboo). There are also regional
names, and it is sometimes confused with sorrel.
In Japanese, the name is itadori (虎杖, イタドリ?).[1]
Old stems remain in place as new growth appears
A hedgerow made up of roses and Japanese knotweed in Caersws, Wales in 2010
Erect inflorescence
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Invasive species
* 2 Uses
* 3 Control
* 4 References
* 5 External links
[edit] Invasive species
In the U.S. and Europe, Japanese knotweed is widely considered an invasive species or
weed.[2] It is listed by the World Conservation Union as one of the world's 100 worst
invasive species.[3]
The invasive root system and strong growth can damage foundations, buildings, flood
defences, roads, paving, retaining walls and architectural sites. It can also reduce the
capacity of channels in flood defences to carry water.[4]
It is a frequent colonizer of temperate riparian ecosystems, roadsides and waste places. It
forms thick, dense colonies that completely crowd out any other herbaceous species and is
now considered one of the worst invasive exotics in parts of the eastern United States. The
success of the species has been partially attributed to its tolerance of a very wide range
of soil types, pH and salinity. Its rhizomes can survive temperatures of −35 °C (−31 °F)
and can extend 7 metres (23 ft) horizontally and 3 metres (9.8 ft) deep, making removal by
excavation extremely difficult. The plant is also resilient to cutting, vigorously
re-sprouting from the roots. The most effective method of control is by herbicide
application close to the flowering stage in late summer or autumn. In some cases it is
possible to eradicate Japanese knotweed in one growing season using only herbicides. Trials
in the Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii) of British Columbia using sea water sprayed on
the foliage have demonstrated promising results, which may prove to be a viable option for
eradication where concerns over herbicide application are too great.[citation needed]
It can be found in 39 of the 50 United States[5] and in six provinces in Canada. It is
listed as an invasive weed in Ohio, Vermont, Virginia, New York, Alaska, Pennsylvania,
Oregon and Washington state.[6] The species is also common in Europe. In the UK it was made
illegal to spread Japanese knotweed by the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. It is also
classed as "controlled waste" in Britain under part 2 of the Environmental Protection Act
1990. This requires disposal at licensed landfill sites.[7]
Two biological pest control agents that show promise in the control of the plant are the
psyllid Aphalara itadori[8] and a leaf spot fungus from genus Mycosphaerella.[9]
[edit] Uses
Japanese knotweed flowers are valued by some beekeepers as an important source of nectar
for honeybees, at a time of year when little else is flowering. Japanese knotweed yields a
monofloral honey, usually called bamboo honey by northeastern U.S. beekeepers, like a
mild-flavored version of buckwheat honey (a related plant also in the Polygonaceae).
The young stems are edible as a spring vegetable, with a flavor similar to mild rhubarb. In
some locations, semi-cultivating Japanese knotweed for food has been used as a means of
controlling knotweed populations that invade sensitive wetland areas and drive out the
native vegetation.[10] Some caution should be exercised when consuming this plant because
it contains oxalic acid, which may aggravate conditions such as rheumatism, arthritis,
gout, kidney stones or hyperacidity.[11]
Both Japanese knotweed and giant knotweed are important concentrated sources of
resveratrol, replacing grape byproducts. Many large supplement sources of resveratrol now
use Japanese knotweed and use its scientific name in the supplement labels. The plant is
useful because of its year-round growth and robustness in different climates.[12]
Japanese knotweed is a concentrated source of emodin, used as a nutritional supplement to
regulate bowel motility. The roots of Japanese knotweed are used in traditional Chinese and
Japanese herbal medicines as a natural laxative. The active principle responsible for the
laxative effect is emodin, present in its natural form as a complex of its analogs. Emodin
has a mild laxative effect in doses of 20 to 50 mg per day.
Methanol extracts of the roots of Polygonum cuspidatum (Polygonaceae), traditionally used
in Korea to maintain oral health, were shown to reduce the viability of Streptococcus
mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus as well as inhibit sucrose-dependent adherence,
water-insoluble glucan formation, glycolytic acid production and acid tolerance. The
authors suggested that inhibitory effects may be mediated by the presence of alkaloids,
phenolics and sterol/terpenes in the extract.[13]
This antique locomotive at Beekbergen, Netherlands is overgrown by knotweed. A few years
ago, it was knotweed-free
[edit] Control
Japanese knotweed has a large underground network of roots (rhizomes). To eradicate the
plant the roots need to be killed. Picking the right herbicide is essential, as it must
travel through the plant and into the root system below. Glyphosate is the best active
ingredient in herbicide for use on Japanese knotweed as it is ’systemic’; it penetrates
through the whole plant and travels to the roots. Glyphosate is available under several
trade names - all label the product as a "weed and grass killer". Commercial glyphosate
concentrates contain approximately 20%-40% glyphosate; the balance is mostly water. Such
concentrates need to be diluted in water.
The most effective spraying solution contains about 5%-10% glyphosate in water. (To make a
5% solution from a 40% concentrate mix 1 part concentrate with 7 parts water.) Ready-to-use
solutions that contain less than 5% glyphosate are too weak and do not work. A small amount
of liquid dish-washing detergent can be added to improve wetting of the leaves. If
possible, both sides of the leaves should be sprayed until they are completely wet. It
takes about 3 weeks for most of the plants to die. After 3 weeks, all remaining plants
should be sprayed again. This process needs to be repeated until all the plants die.
Typically this can take 3 years.
The US federal government will come and spray Japanese knotweed for no charge in many areas
under the Invasive Species Act. Local county extension agencies can be contacted for more
details.
Digging up the rhizomes is a common solution where the land is to be developed, as this is
quicker than the use of herbicides, but disposal of the plant material is difficult,
governed by law in the UK, where it is classed as controlled waste.
More ecologically friendly means are being tested as an alternative to chemical treatments.
Soil steaming [14] involves injecting steam into contaminated soil in order to kill
subterranean plant parts. Research has also been carried out on 'Mycosphaerella leafspot
fungus, which devastates knotweed in its native Japan. Research with Mycosphaerella has
been relatively slow, due to its complex life cycle.[15]
In the UK, it is an offence under section 14(2) of the Wildlife and Countryside act 1981 to
"plant or otherwise cause to grow in the wild" any plant listed in Schedule nine, Part II
to the Act, which includes Japanese knotweed. Over £150m is spent annually on Japanese
knotweed control, and a decision was taken on 9 March 2010 in the UK to release into the
wild a Japanese psyllid insect, Aphalara itadori.[16] Its diet is highly specific to
Japanese knotweed and shows good potential for its control[
Juneberry, Shadbush, Serviceberry
Amelanchier (pronounced /æməˈlænʃɪər/ am-ə-LAN-sheer[2]), also known as shadbush,
serviceberry, sarvisberry, juneberry, saskatoon, shadblow, shadwood, sugarplum, chuckley
pear, and wild-plum, is a genus of about 20 species of shrubs and small deciduous trees in
the Rosaceae (Rose family).
The genus is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, growing primarily in
early successional habitats. It is most diverse taxonomically in North America, especially
in the northern United States and in Canada, and is native to every state of the United
States except Hawaii. Two species also occur in Asia, and one in Europe. These plants are
valued horticulturally, and their fruits are important to wildlife. The systematics
(taxonomy) of shadbushes has long perplexed botanists, horticulturalists, and others, as
suggested by the range in number of species recognized in the genus from 6 to 33 in two
recent publications [3][4]. A major source of complexity comes from the occurrence of
apomixis (asexual seed production), polyploidy, and hybridization.[5]
Amelanchier species grow to 0.2–20 m tall, arborecent or suckering and forming loose
colonies or dense clumps to single-stemmed. The bark is gray or less often brown, smooth or
fissuring in older trees. The leaves are deciduous, cauline, alternate, simple, lanceolate
to elliptic to orbiculate, 0.5–10 x 0.5–5.5 cm, thin to coriaceous, with surfaces abaxially
glabrous or densely tomentose at flowering, abaxially glabrous or more or less hairy at
maturity. The inflorescences are terminal, with 1–20 flowers, erect or drooping, either in
clusters of one to four flowers, or in racemes with 4–20 flowers. The flowers have five
white (rarely somewhat pink, yellow, or streaked with red), linear to orbiculate petals,
2.6–25 mm long, occasionally andropetalous (bearing apical microsporangia adaxially; only
known in this genus in A. nantucketensis). The flowers appear in early spring, "when the
shad run" according to tradition (leading to names such as "shadbush"). The fruit is a
berry-like pome, red to purple to nearly black at maturity, 5–15 mm diameter, insipid to
delectably sweet, maturing in summer.[5]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Selected species
* 2 Etymology
* 3 Ecology
* 4 Uses and cultivation
* 5 References
* 6 External links
[edit] Selected species
For North American species, the taxonomy follows the forthcoming Flora of North
America;[5][6] for Asian species the Flora of China;[7] and for European species the Flora
Europaea.[8]
* Amelanchier alnifolia var. alnifolia - Saskatoon serviceberry, alder-leaved shadbush,
saskatoon, saskatoon berry, amélanchier à feuilles d'aulne[9]
* Amelanchier amabilis - Lovely shadbush, amélanchier gracieux [10]
* Amelanchier arborea - Downy shadbush[11]
* Amelanchier bartramiana - Mountain shadbush, amélanchier de Bartram [12]
* Amelanchier canadensis var. canadensis - Eastern shadbush, amélanchier du Canada[13]
* Amelanchier humilis - Low shadbush, amélanchier bas[14]
* Amelanchier interior - Wiegand's shadbush, amélanchier de l'intérieur[15]
* Amelanchier laevis - Smooth shadbush, amélanchier glabre [16]
* Amelanchier nantucketensis - Nantucket serviceberry
* Amelanchier ovalis - Snowy Mespilus[17]
* Amelanchier sanguinea - Red-twigged shadbush, amélanchier sanguin[18]
* Amelanchier sinica - Chinese Serviceberry[19]
* Amelanchier spicata - Thicket shadbush, amélanchier en épis[20]
* Amelanchier utahensis - Utah serviceberry[21]
Several natural hybrids also exist.
[edit] Etymology
The origin of the generic name Amelanchier is probably derived from amalenquièr,
amelanchièr, the Provençal names of the European Amelanchier ovalis. The name serviceberry
comes from the similarity of the fruit to the related European Sorbus. Juneberry refers to
the fruits of certain species becoming ripe in June. The name saskatoon originated from a
Cree Indian noun misâskwatômina (misāskwatōmina, misaaskwatoomina) for Amelanchier
alnifolia. The city of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan is named after this plant.
[edit] Ecology
Amelanchier are preferred browse for deer and rabbits, and heavy browsing pressure can
suppress natural regeneration. Caterpillars of Lepidoptera such as Brimstone Moth,
Brown-tail, Grey Dagger, Mottled Umber, Rough Prominent, The Satellite, Winter Moth,
Limenitis arthemis and other herbivorous insects also have a taste for serviceberry. Many
insects and diseases that attack orchard trees also affect this genus, in particular trunk
borers and Gymnosporangium rust. In years when late flowers overlap those of wild roses and
brambles, bees may spread bacterial fireblight.
[edit] Uses and cultivation
The fruit of several species are excellent to eat raw, tasting somewhat like a blueberry,
strongly accented by the almond-like flavour of the seeds. Fruit is harvested locally for
pies and jams[22]. The saskatoon berry is harvested commercially. The Native American food
pemmican was flavored by shadbush fruits in combination with fat and dried meats, and the
stems were made into arrow shafts.
Several species are very popular ornamental shrubs, grown for their flowers, bark, and fall
color. All need similar conditions to grow well, requiring good drainage, air circulation
(to discourage leaf diseases), watering during drought and acceptable soil. Note that
species names are often used interchangeably in the nursery trade. Many A. arborea plants
that are offered for sale are actually hybrids, or entirely different species.
The wood is brown, hard, close-grained, and heavy. The heartwood is reddish-brown, and the
sapwood is lighter in color. It can be used for tool handles and fishing rods.
Propagation is by seed, divisions and grafting. Serviceberries graft so readily that grafts
with other genera, such as Crataegus and Sorbus, are often successful.
George Washington planted specimens on the grounds of Mount Vernon.
A taxon commonly cited as Amelanchier "lamarckii" is very widely cultivated and naturalized
in Europe, where it was introduced in the 17th century; it is known to be of North American
origin, probably from eastern Canada. It is not currently known to occur in the wild, and
is probably of hybrid origin between A. laevis and either A. arborea or A. canadensis; it
is apomictic and breeds true from seed
Kousa Dogwood
The Kousa Dogwood (Cornus kousa or Benthamidia kousa), also known as the Japanese Flowering
Dogwood (Yamaboushi (ヤマボウシ?)), is a small deciduous tree 8–12 m tall, native to eastern
Asia. Like most dogwoods, it has opposite, simple leaves, which are 4–10 cm long.
The tree is extremely showy when in bloom, but what appear to be four petaled white flowers
are actually bracts spread open below the cluster of inconspicuous yellow-green flowers.
The blossoms appear is in late spring, weeks after the tree leafs out.
[edit] Characteristics
The kousa dogwood can be distinguished from the closely related Flowering Dogwood (Cornus
florida) of eastern North America by its more upright habit, flowering about a month later,
and having pointed rather than rounded flower bracts.
The fruit is a globose pink to red compound berry 2–3 cm diameter, though these berries
tend to grow larger towards the end of the season and some berry clusters that do not fall
from the tree surpass 4 cm. It is edible, a delicious addition to the tree's ornamental
value.
There are two varieties:
* Cornus kousa var. kousa. Leaves 4–7 cm; flower bracts 3–5 cm. Japan.
* Cornus kousa var. chinensis. Leaves 5–10 cm; flower bracts 4–6 cm. China.
It is resistant to the dogwood anthracnose disease, caused by the fungus Discula
destructiva, unlike Flowering Dogwood, which is very susceptible and commonly killed by it;
for this reason, Kousa Dogwood is being widely planted as an ornamental tree in areas
affected by the disease. A number of hybrids between Kousa Dogwood and Flowering Dogwood
have also been selected for their disease resistance and good flower appearance.
Mulberries
Morus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae. The 10–16 species of deciduous
trees it contains are commonly known as Mulberries. They are native to warm temperate and
subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas, with the majority of the
species native to Asia.
The closely related genus Broussonetia is also commonly known as mulberry, notably the
Paper Mulberry, Broussonetia papyrifera.
Mulberries are swift-growing when young, but soon become slow-growing and rarely exceed
10–15 m (33–49 ft) tall. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple, often lobed, more
often lobed on juvenile shoots than on mature trees, and serrated on the margin.
The fruit is a multiple fruit, 2–3 cm (0.79–1.2 in) long. The fruits when immature are
white or green to pale yellow with pink edges. In most species the fruits are red when they
are ripening, turning dark purple to black and have a sweet flavor. The fruits of the
white-fruited cultivar of the white mulberry are green when young and white when ripe; the
fruit in this cultivar is also sweet but has a very mild flavor compared with the darker
variety.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Species
* 2 Uses and cultivation
o 2.1 Anthocyanins from mulberry fruits
* 3 Popular culture
* 4 References
* 5 External links
[edit] Species
The taxonomy of Morus is complex and disputed. Over 150 species names have been published,
and although differing sources may cite different selections of accepted names, only 10–16
are generally cited as being accepted by the vast majority of botanical authorities. Morus
classification is even further complicated by widespread hybridisation, wherein the hybrids
are fertile.
The following species are generally accepted:
* Morus alba L. – White Mulberry (E Asia)
* Morus australis Poir. – Chinese Mulberry (SE Asia)
* Morus celtidifolia Kunth (Mexico)
* Morus insignis (S America)
* Morus mesozygia Stapf – African Mulberry (S and C Africa)
* Morus microphylla – Texas Mulberry (Mexico, Texas (USA))
* Morus nigra L. – Black Mulberry (SW Asia)
* Morus rubra L. – Red Mulberry (E N America)
The following, all from eastern and southern Asia, are additionally accepted by one or more
taxonomic lists or studies; synonymy, as given by other lists or studies, is indicated in
square brackets:
* Morus atropurpurea
* Morus bombycis [M. australis]
* Morus cathayana
* Morus indica [M. alba]
* Morus japonica [M. alba]
* Morus kagayamae [M. australis]
* Morus laevigata [M. alba var. laevigata; M. macroura]
* Morus latifolia [M. alba]
* Morus liboensis
* Morus macroura [M. alba var. laevigata]
* Morus mongolica [M. alba var. mongolica]
* Morus multicaulis [M. alba]
* Morus notabilis
* Morus rotundiloba
* Morus serrata [M. alba var. serrata], Himalayan mulberry
* Morus tillaefolia
* Morus trilobata [M. australis var. trilobata]
* Morus wittiorum
[edit] Uses and cultivation
The ripe fruit is edible and is widely used in pies, tarts, wines, cordials and tea. The
fruit of the black mulberry, native to southwest Asia, and the red mulberry, native to
eastern North America, have the strongest flavor. The fruit of the white mulberry, an east
Asian species which is extensively naturalized in urban regions of eastern North America,
has a different flavor, sometimes characterized as insipid.[2] The mature plant contains
significant amounts of resveratrol, particularly in stem bark.[3] The fruit and leaves are
sold in various forms as nutritional supplements. Unripe fruit and green parts of the plant
have a white sap that is intoxicating and mildly hallucinogenic.[4]
Black, red, and white mulberry are widespread in Northern India, Azerbaijan, Jordan, Syria,
Lebanon, Georgia, Armenia, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan, where the tree and the
fruit are known by the Persian-derived names toot (mulberry) or shahtoot (King's or
"superior" mulberry). Jams and sherbets are often made from the fruit in this region. Black
mulberry was imported to Britain in the 17th century in the hope that it would be useful in
the cultivation of silkworms. It was much used in folk medicine, especially in the
treatment of ringworm. Mulberries are also widespread in Greece, particularly in the
Peloponnese, which in the Middle Ages was known as Morea (Greek: Μωριάς, Morias), deriving
from the Greek word for the tree (Greek: Μουριά, Μouria). Mulberry trees were used for silk
production, which was a major source of wealth for the region.
Mulberry leaves, particularly those of the white mulberry, are ecologically important as
the sole food source of the silkworm (Bombyx mori, named after the mulberry genus Morus),
the pupa/cocoon of which is used to make silk. Other Lepidoptera larvae also sometimes feed
on the plant including common emerald, lime hawk-moth, and the sycamore.
Mulberries can be grown from seed, and this is often advised as seedling-grown trees are
generally of better shape and health. But they are most often planted from large cuttings
which root readily. The mulberry plants which are allowed to grow tall with a crown height
of 5 - 6 feet from the ground level having stem girth of 4 -5 inches or more is called tree
mulberry. They are specially raised with the help of well grown saplings of 8 - 10 months
old with any of the varieties recommended for rain fed areas like S-13 (for red loamy soil)
or S-34 (black cotton soil) which are tolerant to draught or soil moisture stress
conditions. Usually the plantation is raised as block plantation with a spacing of 6 feet x
6 feet or 8 feet x 8 feet as plant to plant and row to row distance. The plants are usually
pruned once in a year during monsoon (July - August) at a height of 5 - 6 feet from the
ground level and allowed to grow with maximum of 8 - 10 shoots at crown. The leaf is
harvested 3-4 times in a year by leaf picking method under rain fed or semi-arid conditions
depending upon the monsoon. The tree branches pruned during the fall season (after the
leaves have fallen) are cut and used to make very durable baskets which are used in a lot
of village jobs related to agriculture and animal husbandry.
[edit] Anthocyanins from mulberry fruits
Anthocyanins are pigments which hold potential use as dietary modulators of mechanisms for
various diseases[5][6] and as natural food colorants. Due to increasing demand for natural
food colorants, their significance in the food industry is increasing. Anthocyanins are
responsible for the attractive colors of fresh plant foods, producing colors such as
orange, red, purple, black, and blue. They are water-soluble and easily extractable.
A cheap and industrially feasible method to purify anthocyanins from mulberry fruit which
could be used as a fabric tanning agent or food colorant of high color value (of above 100)
has been established. Scientists found that out of 31 Chinese mulberry cultivars tested,
the total anthocyanin yield varied from 148 mg to 2725 mg per liter of fruit juice.[7]
Total sugars, total acids, and vitamins remained intact in the residual juice after removal
of anthocyanins and that the residual juice could be fermented to produce products such as
juice, wine, and sauce.
Worldwide, mulberry is grown for its fruit. In traditional and folk medicine, the fruit is
believed to have medicinal properties and is used for making jam, wine, and other food
products. As the genus Morus has been domesticated over thousands of years and constantly
been subjected to heterosis breeding (mainly for improving leaf yield), it is possible to
hybridize breeds suitable for berry production, thus offering possible industrial use of
mulberry as a source of anthocyanins for functional foods or food colorants which could
enhance the overall profitability of sericulture.
Anthocyanin content depends on climate, area of cultivation, and is particularly higher in
sunny climates.[8] This finding holds promise for tropical sericulture countries to profit
from industrial anthocyanin production from mulberry through anthocyanin recovery.
This offers a challenging task to the mulberry germplasm resources for
* exploration and collection of fruit yielding mulberry species;
* their characterization, cataloging, and evaluation for anthocyanin content by using
traditional as well as modern means and biotechnology tools;
* developing an information system about these cultivars or varieties;
* training and global coordination of genetic stocks;
* evolving suitable breeding strategies to improve the anthocyanin content in potential
breeds by collaboration with various research stations in the field of sericulture, plant
genetics, and breeding, biotechnology and pharmacology.
Mugwort
Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort or common wormwood) is one of several species in the genus
Artemisia which have common names that include the word mugwort. This species is also
occasionally known as Felon Herb, Chrysanthemum Weed, Wild Wormwood, Old uncle Henry,
Sailor's Tobacco, Naughty Man, Old Man or St. John's Plant (not to be confused with St
John's wort).
It is native to temperate Europe, Asia, northern Africa and Alaska and is naturalized in
North America,[1] where some consider it an invasive weed. It is a very common plant
growing on nitrogenous soils, like weedy and uncultivated areas, such as waste places and
roadsides.
It is a tall herbaceous perennial plant growing 1–2 m (rarely 2.5 m) tall, with a woody
root. The leaves are 5–20 cm long, dark green, pinnate, with dense white tomentose hairs on
the underside. The erect stem often has a red-purplish tinge. The rather small flowers (5
mm long) are radially symmetrical with many yellow or dark red petals. The narrow and
numerous capitula (flower heads) spread out in racemose panicles. It flowers from July to
September.
A number of species of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) feed on the leaves and flowers;
see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Artemisia for details.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Nomenclature and taxonomy
* 2 List of the cultivars
* 3 Etymology
* 4 Related species
* 5 Uses
o 5.1 Middle ages
o 5.2 Witchcraft
o 5.3 Food
o 5.4 Medicinal
o 5.5 China
o 5.6 Germany
o 5.7 Korea
o 5.8 Japan
* 6 Allergen
* 7 References
* 8 External links
[edit] Nomenclature and taxonomy
Wiki letter w.svg This section is empty. You can help by adding to it.
[edit] List of the cultivars
Wiki letter w.svg This section is empty. You can help by adding to it.
[edit] Etymology
Mugwort is often said to derive from the word "mug" since it has been used in flavoring
drinks at least since the early Iron Age.[2] However, this may be a folk etymology based on
coincidental sounds. Other sources say Mugwort is derived from the old Norse muggi, meaning
"marsh", and Germanic "wuertz", meaning "root", which refers to its use since ancient times
to repel insects, especially moths.[3] The Old English word for mugwort is "mucgwyrt" where
"mucg-" could be a variation of the Old English word for midge "mycg". Wort comes from the
Old English "wyrt" (root/herb/plant) which is related to the Old High Germany "wurz" (root)
and the Old Norse "urt" (plant).[4] Mugwort is called chornobylnik in Ukrainian, and has
given its name to the abandoned city of Chernobyl (Chornobyl in Ukrainian). The name
chornobyl has an interesting history, meaning "place where mugwort grows" in the related
Indo-European languages.[citation needed]
[edit] Related species
There are other species in the genus Artemisia called mugwort:
* Artemisia douglasiana – Douglas' Mugwort
* Artemisia glacialis – Alpine Mugwort
* Artemisia norvegica – Norwegian Mugwort
* Artemisia princeps – Japanese Mugwort ("Yomogi")
* Artemisia stelleriana – Hoary Mugwort
* Artemisia verlotiorum – Chinese Mugwort
[edit] Uses
19th century illustration
Mugwort contains thujone, which is toxic in large amounts or under prolonged intake.
Thujone is also present in Thuja plicata (western red cedar), from which the name is
derived. Pregnant women, in particular, should avoid consuming large amounts of mugwort.
The species has a number of recorded historic uses in food, herbal medicine, and as a
smoking herb.
[edit] Middle ages
In the Middle Ages, mugwort was used as a magical protective herb. Mugwort was used to
repel insects, especially moths, from gardens. Mugwort has also been used from ancient
times as a remedy against fatigue and to protect travelers against evil spirits and wild
animals. Roman soldiers put mugwort in their sandals to protect their feet against
fatigue.[5] Mugwort is one of the nine herbs invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon Nine Herbs
Charm, recorded in the 10th century in the Lacnunga.[6]
[edit] Witchcraft
Much used in witchcraft, mugwort is said to be useful in inducing lucid dreaming and astral
travel/astral projection. Consumption of the plant, or a tincture thereof, prior to
sleeping is said to increase the intensity of dreams, the level of control, and to aid in
the recall of dreams upon waking. One common method of ingestion is to smoke the plant.[7]
[edit] Food
The leaves and buds, best picked shortly before the plant flowers in July to September,
were used as a bitter flavoring agent to season fat, meat and fish.
It has also been used to flavor beer before the introduction of or instead of hops.[8][2]
[edit] Medicinal
A mugwort leaf with the pointed leaves characteristic of a mature plant
The mugwort plant contains essential oils (such as cineole, or wormwood oil, and thujone),
flavonoids, triterpenes, and coumarin derivatives. It was also used as an anthelminthic, so
it is sometimes confused with wormwood (Artemisia absinthium). The plant, called nagadamni
in Sanskrit, is used in Ayurveda for cardiac complaints as well as feelings of unease,
unwellness and general malaise.[9]
The British RCT yielded results that indicate that moxibustion of mugwort was indeed
effective at increasing the cephalic positioning of fetuses who were in a breech position
before the intervention[citation needed]. In contrast, a Cochrane review in 2005 found that
moxibustion may be beneficial in reducing the need for ECV, but stressed a need for
well-designed randomised controlled trials to evaluate this usage[10]. Since it also causes
uterine contractions, it has been used to cause abortion. It also plays a role in Asian
traditional medicine as a method of correcting breech presentation. A study of 260 Chinese
women at 33 weeks of pregnancy demonstrated cephalic version within two weeks in 75% of
fetuses carried by patients who were treated with moxibustion, as opposed to 48% in the
control group.[11] It has also been shown that acupuncture plus moxibustion slows fetal
heart rates while increasing fetal movement.[12] Two recent studies of Italian patients
produced conflicting results. In the first, involving 226 patients, there was cephalic
presentation at delivery in 54% of women treated between 33 and 35 weeks with acupuncture
and moxibustion, vs. 37% in the control group.[13] The second was terminated prematurely
because of poor compliance with treatment, but found no difference between moxibustion and
control groups.[14]
In rats, Mugwort shows efficacy against trichinellosis.[15]
[edit] China
There are several references to the Chinese using mugwort in cuisine. The famous Chinese
poet Su Shi (苏轼） in the 11th century mentioned it in one of his poems. There are even older
poems and songs that can be tracked back to 3 BC. Mainly it was called Lou Hao (蒌蒿） in
Mandarin. Mugwort can be prepared as a cold dish or can be stir fried with fresh or smoked
meat. The Hakka Taiwanese also use it to make chhú-khak-ké (鼠麹粿, 草仔粿).
Mugwort is used in the practice of traditional Chinese medicine in a pulverized and aged
form called moxa.
[edit] Germany
In Germany, known as Beifuß, it is mainly used to season goose, especially the roast goose
traditionally eaten for Christmas. From the German, ancient use of a sprig of mugwort
inserted into the goose cavity, comes the saying "goosed" or "is goosed".[citation needed]
[edit] Korea
Mugwort or Sook is also used in Korea as a common ingredient in rice cakes, teas, soups,
and pancakes. Known as a blood cleanser, it is believed to have different medicinal
properties depending on the region it is collected. In some regions, mugwort thins the
blood, while in another region, it is proposed to have hallucigenic properties, leading to
some bonneted grandmothers passing out from direct skin contact (dermal absorption) with
the active chemicals. For this reason, Koreans also wear a silk sleeve when picking mugwort
plants.
[edit] Japan
Mugwort or yomogi is used in a number of Japanese dishes, including yōkan, a dessert, or
kusa mochi, also known as yomogi mochi.
Mugwort rice cakes, or kusa mochi are used for Japanese sweets called Daifuku (which
literally translated means 'great luck'). To make these take a small amount of mochi and
stuff it or wrap it round a filling of fruit or sweetened azuki (red bean) paste.
Traditional Daifuku can be pale green, white or pale pink and are covered in a fine layer
of potato starch to prevent sticking.
Ingredients for kusa mochi[16]: Whole-grain sweet brown rice and Japanese mugwort (yomogi)
herb.
Mugwort is a vital ingredient of kusa mochi (rice cake with mugwort) and hishi mochi
(lozenge rice cake) which is served at the Doll Festival in March. In addition, the fuzz on
the underside of the mugwort leaves is gathered and used in moxibustion. In some regions in
Japan[17], there is an ancient custom of hanging yomogi and iris leaves together outside
homes in order to keep evil spirits away. It is said that evil spirits dislike their smell.
The juice is said to be effective at stopping bleeding, lowering fevers and purging the
stomach of impurities. It can also be boiled and taken to relieve colds and coughs.
[edit] Allergen
Mugwort pollen is one of main sources of hay fever and allergic asthma, in North Europe,
North America and in parts of Asia.[18][19]. Mugwort pollen generally travels less than
2,000 meters[20]. The highest concentration of mugwort pollen is generally found between 9
and 11 am. The Finnish allergy association recommends tearing as method of eradicating
mugwort[20]. Tearing mugwort is known to lessen the effect of the allergy, since the pollen
flies only short distance[20]].
Cooking is known to decrease the allergenicity of mugwort.
Ostrich Fern
The ostrich fern or shuttlecock fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris) is a crown-forming,
colony-forming fern, occurring in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in eastern
and northern Europe, northern Asia and northern North America.
Spore-bearing fertile fronds in early spring
It grows from a completely vertical crown, favoring riverbanks and sandbars, but sends out
lateral stolons to form new crowns. It thus can form dense colonies resistant to
destruction by floodwaters.
The fronds are dimorphic, with the deciduous green sterile fronds being almost vertical,
100-170 cm tall and 20-35 cm broad, long-tapering to the base but short-tapering to the
tip, so that they resemble ostrich plumes, hence the name. The fertile fronds are shorter,
40-60 cm long, brown when ripe, with highly modified and constricted leaf tissue curled
over the sporangia; they develop in autumn, persist erect over the winter and release the
spores in early spring.
Matteuccia species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species
including Sthenopis auratus.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Cultivation and uses
* 2 Classification
* 3 References
* 4 Sources
[edit] Cultivation and uses
The ostrich fern is a popular ornamental plant in gardens. While choosing a place of
planting it should be taken into account that these ferns are very expansive and its leaves
often lose their beauty throughout the summer, especially if not protected from wind and
hail. The tightly wound immature fronds, called fiddleheads, are also used as a cooked
vegetable, and are considered a delicacy mainly in rural areas of northeastern North
America.
The plants are also grown in Japan, where the sprouts ("kogomi" in Japanese) are a
delicacy.
[edit] Classification
Matteuccia struthiopteris is the only species in the genus Matteuccia. Some sources include
two Asian species, M. orientalis and M. intermedia, but molecular data shows that M.
struthiopteris is more closely related to Onocleopsis and Onoclea (sensitive fern) than it
is to M. orientalis and M. intermedia, and so the latter should be moved to a genus
Pentarhizidium which contains those two species. [2] Formerly classified as a member of the
Dryopteridaceae, Matteuccia has been reassigned to the new much smaller family Onocleaceae.
American Persimmon
A persimmon is the edible fruit of a number of species of trees in the genus Diospyros in
the ebony wood family (Ebenaceae). The word Diospyros means "the fruit of the gods" in
ancient Greek.[1] As a tree, it is a perennial plant. The word persimmon is derived from
putchamin, pasiminan, or pessamin, from Powhatan, an Algonquian language (related to
Blackfoot, Cree and Mohican) of the eastern United States, meaning "a dry fruit".[2]
Persimmons are generally light yellow-orange to dark red-orange in color, and depending on
the species, vary in size from 1.5 to 9 cm (0.5 to 4 in) diameter, and may be spherical,
acorn-, or pumpkin-shaped.[3] The calyx often remains attached to the fruit after
harvesting, but becomes easier to remove as it ripens. They are high in glucose, with a
balanced protein profile, and possess various medicinal and chemical uses.
Like the tomato, it is not considered a "common berry", but is in fact a "true berry" by
definition.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Select species
* 2 Fruit
o 2.1 Fruit production
o 2.2 Culinary uses
* 3 Medical effects
* 4 Wood
* 5 Trees
* 6 Apocryphal and traditional significance
* 7 Gallery
* 8 See also
* 9 References
[edit] Select species
Diospyros kaki 柿
The shizi (柿子 in Chinese), also known as Japanese Persimmon or kaki (柿) (Diospyros kaki),
is the most widely cultivated species. These are sweet, slightly tangy fruits with a soft
to occasionally fibrous texture. This species, native to China, is deciduous, with broad,
stiff leaves. Cultivation of the fruit extended first to other parts of east Asia, and was
later introduced to California and southern Europe in the 1800s, to Brazil in the 1890s[4],
and numerous cultivars have been selected. It is edible in its crisp firm state, but has
its best flavor when allowed to rest and soften slightly after harvest. The Japanese
cultivar 'Hachiya' is a widely grown cultivar. The fruit has a high tannin content which
makes the immature fruit astringent and bitter. The tannin levels are reduced as the fruit
matures. Persimmons like 'Hachiya' must be completely ripened before consumption. When
ripe, this fruit comprises thick pulpy jelly encased in a waxy thin skinned shell. "Sharon
Fruit" (named originally after Sharon plain in Israel) is the trade name for D. kaki fruit
that has been artificially ripened with chemicals.[5]
Nanyo City, Yamagata, Japan. October 2005.
The Date-plum (Diospyros lotus) is native to southwest Asia and southeast Europe. It was
known to the ancient Greeks as "the fruit of the gods", or often referred to as "nature's
candy" i.e. Dios pyros (lit. "the wheat of Zeus"), hence the scientific name of the genus.
Its English name probably derives from Persian Khormaloo خرمالو literally "Date-Plum",
referring to the taste of this fruit which is reminiscent of both plums and dates. This
species is one candidate for the lotus mentioned in the Odyssey: it was so delicious that
those who ate it forgot about returning home and wanted to stay and eat lotus with the
lotus-eaters.[6] The fruit is also known as 'Amlok' or 'Japani Phal' in Pakistan.
The American Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) is native to the eastern United States and is
higher in nutrients like vitamin C and calcium than the Japanese Persimmon.[7]
The Black Persimmon or Black Sapote (Diospyros digyna) is native to Mexico. Its fruit has
green skin and white flesh, which turns black when ripe.
The Mabolo or Velvet-apple (Diospyros discolor) is native to the Philippines. It is bright
red when ripe. It is also native to China, where it is known as shizi. It is also known as
Korean Mango.
There are many other species of Diospyros that are inedible to humans, and thus have little
or no commercial value for their fruit.
[edit] Fruit
A fuyu persimmon fruit
A ripe hachiya persimmon fruit
Commercially, there are generally two types of persimmon fruit: astringent and
non-astringent.
The heart-shaped Hachiya is the most common variety of astringent persimmon. Astringent
persimmons contain very high levels of soluble tannins and are unpalatable (or "furry"
tasting) if eaten before softening. The astringency of tannins is removed through ripening
by exposure to light over several days, wrapping the fruit in paper (probably because this
increases the ethylene concentration of the surrounding air), and/or artificially with
chemicals such as alcohol and carbon dioxide which change tannin into the insoluble form.
This bletting process is sometimes jumpstarted by exposing the fruit to cold or frost which
hastens cellular wall breakdown. These astringent persimmons can also be prepared for
commercial purposes by drying. Tanenashi fruit will occasionally contain a seed or two,
which can be planted and will yield a larger more vertical tree than when merely grafted
onto the D. virginiana rootstock most commonly used in the U.S. Such seedling trees may
produce fruit that bears more seeds, usually 6 to 8 per fruit, and the fruit itself may
vary slightly from the parent tree. Seedlings are said to be more susceptible to root
nematodes. Those wanting to obtain native persimmon fruit and seeds might look at the
reststop on the west side of Interstate 26 about 6 miles south of Columbia, South Carolina
in the fall. There are several large D. virginiana trees near the exit from the rest stop
which yield abundant seed from which seedlings can be grown and used as rootstock.
The non-astringent persimmon is squat like a tomato and is most commonly sold as fuyu.
Non-astringent persimmons are not actually free of tannins as the term suggests, but rather
are far less astringent before ripening, and lose more of their tannic quality sooner.
Non-astringent persimmons may be consumed when still very firm, and remain edible when very
soft.
There is a third type, less commonly available, the pollination-variant non-astringent
persimmons. When fully pollinated, the flesh of these fruit is brown inside -known as goma
in Japan, and the fruit can be eaten firm. These varieties are highly sought after and can
be found at specialty markets or farmers markets only[citation needed]. Tsurunoko, sold as
"Chocolate persimmon" for its dark brown flesh, Maru, sold as "Cinnamon persimmon" for its
spicy flavor, and Hyakume, sold as "Brown sugar" are the three best known.
Before ripening, persimmons usually have a "chalky" taste or bitter taste.
Culinary uses
Peeled, flattened, and dried persimmons (shibing;柿餅) in a Xi'an market
Persimmons are eaten fresh, dried, raw, or cooked. When eaten fresh, the skin is usually
cut/peeled off and the fruit is often cut into quarters or eaten whole like an apple. One
way to consume very ripe persimmons, which can have the texture of pudding, is to remove
the top leaf with a paring knife and scoop out the flesh with a spoon. The flesh ranges
from firm to mushy and the texture is unique. The flesh is very sweet and when firm
possesses an apple-like crunch. American persimmons are completely inedible until they are
fully ripe. In China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam after harvesting, 'Hachiya' persimmons are
prepared using traditional hand-drying techniques, outdoors for two to three weeks. The
fruit is then further dried by exposure to heat over several days before being shipped to
market. In Japan the dried fruit is called hoshigaki (干し柿), in China it is known as
"shi-bing" (柿饼), in Korea it is known as gotgam (hangul: 곶감), and in Vietnam it is called
hồng khô. It is eaten as a snack or dessert and used for other culinary purposes.
Kaki preserved in lime water
In Korea, dried persimmon fruits are used to make the traditional Korean spicy punch,
sujeonggwa, while the matured, fermented fruit is used to make a persimmon vinegar called
gamsikcho (감식초), which is alleged to have a variety of health benefits. The hoshigaki
tradition traveled to California with Japanese American immigrants.
In Taiwan, fruits of astringent varieties are sealed in jars filled with lime water to get
rid of bitterness. Slightly hardened in the process, they are sold under the name "crisp
persimmon" (cuishi 脆柿) or "water persimmon" (shuishizi 水柿子). Preparation time is dependent
upon temperature (5 to 7 days at 25–28°C). In some areas of Manchuria and Korea, the dried
leaves of the fruit are used for making tea. The Korean name for this tea is ghamnip cha (감
잎차).
干し柿 Hoshigaki, Japanese dried persimmon
In the State of Indiana (USA), persimmons are harvested and used in a variety of dessert
dishes most notably pies. It can be used in cookies, cakes, puddings, salads, curries [2]
and as a topping for breakfast cereal. Persimmon pudding is a dessert using fresh
persimmons. An annual persimmon festival, featuring a persimmon pudding contest, is held
every September in Mitchell, Indiana. Persimmon pudding is a baked pudding that has the
consistency of pumpkin pie but resembles a brownie and is almost always topped with whipped
cream. Persimmons may be stored at room temperature (20°C) where they will continue to
ripen. In northern China, unripe persimmons are frozen outside during winter to speed up
the ripening process.
[edit] Medical effects
The fruits of some persimmon varieties contain the tannins catechin and gallocatechin,[9]
as well as the candidate anti-tumor compounds betulinic acid and shibuol.[citation needed]
Unripened persimmons contain the soluble tannin shibuol, which, upon contact with a weak
acid, polymerizes in the stomach and forms a gluey coagulum, a 'foodball' or phytobezoar,
that can affix with other stomach matter.[10] These phytobezoars are often very hard and
almost woody in consistency. More than 85% phytobezoars are caused by ingestion of
unripened persimmons.[11] Persimmon bezoars (diospyrobezoars) often occur in epidemics in
regions where the fruit is grown.[12][13][14]. Diospyrobezoars should not be of concern
when consuming moderate quantities of persimmons. One case in medical literature from 2004
revealed a 51-year old patient who had eaten a kilogram (2.2 pounds) of unpeeled persimmons
each day for 40 years.[15][16] Cases have been rare and required surgical removal, but more
recently chemical depolymerization by Coca-Cola has been used.[17]
Horses may develop a taste for the fruit growing on a tree in their pasture and overindulge
also, making them quite ill. It is often advised that persimmons should not be eaten on an
empty stomach.[18]
[edit] Wood
An example of persimmon wood furniture
Though persimmon trees belong to the same genus as ebony trees, persimmon tree wood has a
limited use in the manufacture of objects requiring hard wood. It is hard, but cracks
easily and is somewhat difficult to process. Persimmon wood is used for paneling in
traditional Korean and Japanese furniture.
In North America, the lightly colored, fine-grained wood of D. virginiana is used to
manufacture billiard cues and textile shuttles. It is also used in the percussion field as
the shaft of the Tim Genis Signature Timpani Mallet Collection. Persimmon wood was also
heavily used in making the highest-quality heads of the golf clubs known as "woods" until
the golf industry moved primarily to metal woods in the last years of the 20th century. In
fact, the first metal woods made by TaylorMade, an early pioneer of that club type, were
branded as "Pittsburgh Persimmons". Persimmon woods are still made, but in far lower
numbers than in past decades. Over the last few decades persimmon wood has become popular
among bow craftsmen, especially in the making of traditional longbows. Persimmon wood is
used in making a small number of wooden flutes and eating utensils such as wooden spoons
and cornbread knives (wooden knives that may cut through the bread without scarring the
dish).
Like some other plants of the genus Diospyros, older persimmon heartwood is black or dark
brown in color, in stark contrast to the sapwood and younger heartwood, which is pale in
color.
[edit] Trees
Persimmon Tree
The trees of all species have stiff, tumescent leaves, but the female of the D. virginiana
can look less turgid than the male because the leaves droop when fruiting, perhaps because
of the heavier nutrient requirements. They grow swiftly, and are immune to the usual
delicacy of trees planted in unpredictable climates. They are one of the last trees to leaf
out in the spring, and do not flower until well after the leaves have formed, bypassing the
threat of blossom loss to frosts. The fruit hangs on the branches long into the winter.
Because they grow swiftly and colonize off their root systems, they are ideal for helping
recover habitat. A 1–2 year old persimmon tree will be mature enough to bear fruit within
7–8 years. They hold their own against flooding riverbanks quite well and are listed in
Stormwater Journal's list of water-holding trees.[19]
Pineapple Weed
Matricaria discoidea, commonly known as pineapple weed and disc mayweed is an annual plant
native to North America and Northeast Asia but which has become a cosmopolitan weed. It is
in the family Asteraceae. The flowers exude a chamomile/pineapple aroma when crushed. They
are edible and have been used in salads (although they may become bitter by the time the
plant blooms) and to make herbal tea. Pineapple weed has been used for medicinal purposes,
including for relief of gastrointestinal upset, infected sores, fevers, and postpartum
anemia.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Description
* 2 Distribution
* 3 Uses
* 4 References
* 5 External links
[edit] Description
The pinnately dissected leaves are sweet-scented when crushed (Fir Island, Washington).
The flower head is cone-shaped, composed of dense-packed yellowish-green corollas, and
lacking ray-florets. The leaves are pinnately dissected and sweet-scented when crushed. The
plant grows 2 to 16 inches (5.1 to 41 cm) high. Flowerheads are produced from May to
September.
[edit] Distribution
The plant grows well in disturbed areas, especially those with poor, compacted soil. It can
be seen blooming on footpaths, roadsides, and similar places in spring and early summer. In
the USA, it can be found from central Alaska down to California and all the way to Nova
Scotia.
[edit] Uses
Pineapple weed flowers used to be gathered for food by children, although most find it too
bitter to consume raw. The plant, when bruised and rubbed on skin, provides an effective,
yet temporary insect repellent.
Sassafras
Sassafras is a genus of three[1][2] extant and one extinct[3] species of deciduous trees in
the family Lauraceae, native to eastern North America and eastern Asia.[2]
Sassafras trees grow from 9.1–18 m (30–59 ft) tall and spreading 7.6–12 m (25–39 ft)[4] The
trunk grows 70–150 cm (28–59 in) in diameter, with many slender branches, and smooth,
orange-brown bark. The branching is sympodial. The bark of the mature trunk is thick,
red-brown, and deeply furrowed. The wood is light, hard, and sometimes brittle. All parts
of the plants are very fragrant. The species are unusual in having three distinct leaf
patterns on the same plant, unlobed oval, bilobed (mitten-shaped), and trilobed (three
pronged); rarely the leaves can be five-lobed.[5] They have smooth margins and grow 7–20 cm
long by 5–10 cm broad. The young leaves and twigs are quite mucilaginous, and produce a
citrus-like scent when crushed. The tiny, yellow flowers are five-petaled and bloom in the
spring; they are dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate trees. The fruit are
blue-black, egg-shaped, 1 cm long, produced on long, red-stalked cups, and mature in late
summer.[1] The largest Sassafras tree in the United States is located in Owensboro,
Kentucky, which measures over 100 feet high and 21 feet in circumference.[6][7]
The name "Sassafras," applied by the botanist Nicolas Monardes in the sixteenth century, is
said to be a corruption of the Spanish word for saxifrage.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Species
* 2 Usage
o 2.1 Importance to livestock and wildlife
o 2.2 Culinary uses
* 3 Ethnobotanical history
* 4 References
* 5 External links
[edit] Species
Fossil Sassafras hesperia leaf
* Sassafras albidum (Nuttall) Nees - Sassafras, White Sassafras, Red Sassafras or Silky
Sassafras. Eastern North America, from southernmost Ontario, Canada through the eastern
United States south to central Florida, and west to southern Iowa and eastern Texas.
* †Sassafras hesperia (Berry) Wolfe & Wehr 1987 - From the Eocene Klondike Mountain
Formation of Washington and British Columbia[3]
* Sassafras tzumu (Hemsl.) Hemsl. - Chinese Sassafras or Tzumu. Central and
southwestern China. It differs from S. albidum in the leaves being more frequently
three-lobed,[8] the lobes having a tapered acuminate apex (not rounded to weakly acute).
* Sassafras randaiense (Hayata) Rehd. - Taiwanese Sassafras. Taiwan. Treated by some
botanists in a distinct genus as Yushunia randaiensis (Hayata) Kamikoti,[9] though this is
not supported by recent genetic evidence which shows Sassafras to be monophyletic.[2]
[edit] Usage
S. albidum is a host plant for the Spicebush Swallowtail
Steam distillation of dried root bark produces an essential oil consisting mostly of
safrole that once was extensively used as a fragrance in perfumes and soaps, food and for
aromatherapy. The yield of this oil from American sassafras is quite low and great effort
is needed to produce useful amounts of the root bark.[citation needed] Sassafras extract
was a primary ingredient in root beer. Commercial "sassafras oil" generally is a by-product
of camphor production in Asia or comes from related trees in Brazil. Safrole is a precursor
for the clandestine manufacture of the drug MDMA (ecstasy), and as such, its transport is
monitored internationally.
[edit] Importance to livestock and wildlife
Sassafras leaves and twigs are consumed by white-tailed deer in both summer and winter. In
some areas it is an important deer food.[10] Sassafras leaf browsers include groundhogs,
Marsh Rabbits, and American Black Bears.[10] Rabbits eat sassafras bark in winter.[10]
American Beavers will cut sassafras stems.[10] Sassafras fruits are eaten by many species
of birds including Bobwhite Quail,[10] Eastern Kingbirds, Great Crested Flycatchers,
Phoebes, Wild Turkeys, Gray Catbirds, Northern Flickers, Pileated Woodpeckers, Downy
Woodpeckers, thrushes, vireos, and Northern Mockingbirds. Some small mammals also consume
sassafras fruits.[10]
For most of the above mentioned animals, sassafras is not consumed in large enough
quantities to be important. Carey and Gill rate its value to wildlife as fair, their lowest
rating.[10]
[edit] Culinary uses
The dried and ground leaves are used to make filé powder, a condiment served with some
types of gumbo.
The roots of Sassafras can be steeped to make tea and were used in the flavoring of
traditional root beer until being banned for mass production by the FDA. Laboratory animals
that were given oral doses of sassafras tea or sassafras oil that contained large doses of
safrole developed permanent liver damage or various types of cancer. In humans liver damage
can take years to develop and it may not have obvious signs. Along with commercially
available sarsaparilla, sassafras remains an ingredient in use among hobby or microbrew
enthusiasts.
In 1960, the FDA banned the use of sassafras oil and safrole in commercially mass produced
foods and drugs based on the animal studies and human case reports.[11] Several years later
sassafras tea was banned,[11] a ban that lasted until the passage of the Dietary Supplement
Health and Education Act in 1994.[12] Sassafras root extracts which do not contain safrole
or in which the safrole has been removed are permissible, and are still widely used
commercially in teas and root beers.
Sassafras tea can also be used as an anticoagulant.
[edit] Ethnobotanical history
During the establishment of the Virginia Colony, including Jamestown in the seventeenth
century, sassafras was a major export commodity to England. A medicinal root and a wood
prized for its beauty and durability, sassafras was popular from its first import by Sir
Walter Raleigh in 1602 until the eighteenth century.[13] There was a brief period of time
in the early seventeenth century in which sassafras was the second largest export from
America behind tobacco.
Sassafras was a commodity prized in Europe as a cure for gonorrhea[14] and syphilis.
Wild Strawberry
Fragaria virginiana
Rose family (Rosaceae)
Description: This is a low, colony-forming native perennial plant. A plant typically
consists of several trifoliate leaves with long hairy petioles that emerge directly from a
central taproot in the ground. Each leaflet is about 3" long and 1½" wide, pale green
underneath, coarsely serrated, and obovate or oval in shape. The petioles of the compound
leaves are green or dull red and about 3" long. While actively growing, Wild Strawberry
produces long hairy runners up to 2' long, which re-root to form plantlets. These runners
are often dull red as well.
Each plant can produce one or more clusters of flowers in stalks about 3-4" long, which
also emerge directly from the ground. Each flower is about ¾" across and consists of 5
white petals. Toward the center, there are about 25 yellow stamens surrounding a small
blunt cone. The blooming period occurs during late spring or early summer, and lasts about
1-2 months. There is no noticeable floral scent. Afterwards, small red drupes are produced
that are about ½–¾" long, and shaped like the familiar cultivated strawberry. They are
sweet and edible. Unlike Fragaria vesca (Hillside Strawberry), the yellow achenes occur in
sunken pits along the surface of the drupe.
Cultivation: The preference is full or partial sun and moist to slightly dry conditions. A
rich loamy soil is preferred. Wild Strawberry is a cool-season plant that grows actively
during the spring and fall, but becomes dormant after setting fruit during the hot summer
months. It is an easy plant to grow, which will spread to form a loose ground cover. It is
subject to foliar disease to a lesser extent than most cultivated strawberries.
Range & Habitat: Wild Strawberry is occasional to locally common in most areas of Illinois,
but it is uncommon or absent in parts of NW and southern Illinois (see Distribution Map).
Habitats include moist to mesic black soil prairies, openings and edges of woodlands
(including drier areas), savannas, limestone glades, and areas along railroads. Wild
Strawberry is able to tolerate [Close-Up of Flower] competition from taller plants because
it develops early in the spring, and is able to tolerate some shade later in the year. It
occurs in both degraded and high quality habitats, often not far from woodland areas.
Faunal Associations: The ecological value of Wild Strawberry to various insects, birds, and
animals is high. The flowers attract long-tongued bees, short-tongued bees, flies, small
butterflies, and skippers. Among these, small bees are the most important pollinator of the
flowers; this includes such visitors as Little Carpenter bees, Nomadine Cuckoo bees, Mason
bees, Halictid bees, and Andrenine bees. The caterpillars of several species of moths feed
on the foliage and flowers of Wild Strawberry (see Moth Table). Other insects that feed on
Wild Strawberry include Chactosiphum fragraefolii (Strawberry Aphid), Aphis forbesi
(Strawberry Root Aphid), and Otiochynchus ovatus (Strawberry Root Weevil). Various upland
gamebirds, songbirds, and mammals eat the fruit or foliage (see Wildlife Table), including
such prairie-inhabiting species as Tympanuchus cupido (Greater Prairie Chicken) and
Phasianus colchicus (Ring-Necked Pheasant). These birds and animals help to distribute the
seeds far and wide. People also nibble on the fruits.
Photographic Location: The upper photograph was taken along a roadside near Urbana,
Illinois, while the lower photograph was taken at Dave Monk's postage stamp prairie in
Champaign, Illinois.
Comments: This is one of the parent plants for the cultivated hybrid strawberry (the other
plant being native to Chile). The root system forms a symbiotic relationship with
endomycorrhizal bacteria.
Violets
(Viola species)
This group of herbaceous (non-woody) plants has a bilaterally symmetrical (2-sided)
5-petaled flowers, often with bushy stamens forming a "beard" inside. Many have tasty,
edible flowers and leaves, although the yellow violet, which grows in wetlands, may cause
gastrointestinal distress. Don't eat African "violets," which aren't true violets.
Common Blue Violet (Viola papilionacea)
This is the most common species, with a sterile violet-colored flower that blooms in the
spring. There are no leaves on the flower stalk. The heart-shaped, shallow-toothed leaves
arise separately from the ground. They're good to eat in springtime, but become tough and
coarse in the summer.
Poisonous dwarf larkspur (Delphinium tricorne) has a similar violet flower, but with a
"spur" behind the flower, and a different leaf. Monkshood (Aconitum uncinatum), also
poisonous, has a large, helmet-like upper sepal that covers 2 petals
Violets grow in partially shaded spots in moist woods, and in meadows and gardens. They
spread by underground rhizomes (which are toxic), creating dense stands of plants.
White Violet Flower
The white violet's flowers and leaves are also edible. Note the "beard" of fuzzy stamens in
the lower petals
Blue-White Violet Hybrid
This hybrid between blue and white species is also quite beautiful and tasty.
Wild Carrot
Queen Anne's Lace
Daucus carota (common names include wild carrot, (UK) bird's nest, bishop's lace, and (US)
Queen Anne's lace) is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native to temperate regions
of Europe, southwest Asia and naturalised to northeast North America and Australia;
domesticated carrots are cultivars of a subspecies, Daucus carota subsp. sativus.
Daucus carota is a variable biennial plant, usually growing up to 1 m tall and flowering
from June to August. The umbels are claret-coloured or pale pink before they open, then
bright white and rounded when in full flower, measuring 3–7 cm wide with a festoon of
bracts beneath; finally, as they turn to seed, they contract and become concave like a
bird's nest. The dried umbels detach from the plant, becoming tumbleweeds.[1]
Very similar in appearance to the deadly Poison Hemlock, Daucus carota is distinguished by
a mix of bi-pinnate and tri-pinnate leaves, fine hairs on its stems and leaves, a root that
smells like carrots, and occasionally a single dark red flower in its center.
See carrot for the modern cultivated forms of the species.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Uses
o 1.1 Beneficial weed
* 2 Queen Anne's lace
* 3 See also
* 4 References
* 5 External links
[edit] Uses
Like the cultivated carrot, the wild carrot root is edible while young, but quickly becomes
too woody to consume. A teaspoon of crushed seeds has long been used as a form of birth
control; its use for this purpose was first described by Hippocrates over 2,000 years
ago.[citation needed] Research conducted on mice has offered a degree of confirmation for
this use—it was found that wild carrot disrupts the implantation process, which reinforces
its reputation as a contraceptive.[2] Chinese studies have also indicated that the seeds
block progesterone synthesis, which could explain this effect.[citation needed]
As with all herbal remedies and wild food gathering, extra caution should be used,
especially since the wild carrot bears close resemblance to a dangerous species Poison
Hemlock. The leaves of the wild carrot can cause phytophotodermatitis, so caution should
also be used when handling the plant.
The wild carrot, when freshly cut, will draw or change color depending on the color of the
water it is in. Note that this effect is only visible on the "head" or flower of the plant.
Carnation also exhibits this effect. This occurrence is a popular science experiment in
primary grade school.
[edit] Beneficial weed
This beneficial weed can be used as a companion plant to crops. Like most umbellifers it
attracts predatory wasps to its small flowers in its native land; however, where it has
been introduced it attracts only very few of such wasps . This species is also documented
to boost tomato plant production when kept nearby, and it can provide a microclimate of
cooler, moister air for lettuce, when intercropped with it.
[edit] Queen Anne's lace
Wild carrot was introduced and naturalised in North America, where it is often known as
"Queen Anne's lace". It is so called because the flower resembles lace; the red flower in
the center represents a blood droplet where Queen Anne pricked herself with a needle when
she was making the lace. The function of the tiny red flower, coloured by anthocyanin, is
to attract insects.
The USDA has listed it as a noxious weed [3], and it is considered a serious pest in
pastures. It persists in the soil seed bank for two to five years.
Wineberry
A member of the Rubus genus (as are raspberries and blackberries, as well as a dozen or so
other species), the wineberry is native to China and Japan. It was brought to this country
by way of Europe and sold as an ornamental plant during the later part of the nineteenth
century.
Since wineberries (Rubusphoenicolasius) are relatively new to the U.S., they've established
themselves in the wild only throughout most of the eastern states so far. [EDITOR'S
NOTE:Western folks can grow their own, though. In case you don't happen to live in an area
where wineberries flourish, you'll be glad to know that it's possible to purchase plants by
mail from seed companies. One firm that offers the wineberry is Burpee (Dept. TMEN, 300
Park Avenue, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18991). The folks there will sell you one plant for
$5.25,_ five for $8.95, and ten for $14.75 . . . plus a $1.00 handling charge per order.
Burpee advises that the bushes grow best in Zones 5 through 8.J
Like their raspberry cousins, wineberries produce new canes each year, which then bear
fruit the following summer. The brambles usually flower sometime between April and June
(depending upon climate), and their berries ripen approximately two months later.
WHAT TO LOOK FOR
Fortunately, unlike many of their kin (which often seem to grow best where they're hardest
to find), R.phoenicolasius appear to possess an affinity for being devoured by hungry
berry-hunters .. . be cause their telltale eight- to ten-foot-long canes, which are covered
(all year long) with bright red bristles, are remarkably easy to 'spot. In fact, the
colorful little hairs make it o possible for a forager to scout out wineberry patches well
in advance of harvest time . . . even in the dead of winter, and especially when there's
snow on the ground.
The foliage of the wineberry plant is distinctive, too. Its silky green leaves (with
silvery white undersides) grow in clusters of three, one of which is always noticeably
larger than the other two. White (or sometimes pink) blossoms appear in the spring, but
they seem pale in comparison with the splendid array of color that develops as the berries
themselves ripen.
RELATED CONTENT
Raspberries
Growing, picking, preparation and cooking advice for these tasty berries, and recipes for
raspberry...
Canning jars
The lowdown on the safest techniques for keeping Canning...
Canners Come Together
Experience the camaraderie of community canning....
Growing Raspberries and Blackberries
Growing raspberries and blackberries is fun and will help you save money on pricey fruits.
Learn ho...
Once the calyx (which houses the tiny immature morsels) opens to expose the fruit to the
sun, the berries turn from green to yellow to orange, and finally to deep wine red when
they're ready for sampling. (Besides having that characteristic coloration, mature berries
will be slightly sticky to the touch.) At the height of the picking season, the richlooking
berries glistening amidst the lush green foliage and scarlet-furred branches make a
wineberry thicket both a dramatic and an unmistakable sight.
YOUR PICK
When you're ready to visit the briar patch, arm yourself with plenty of containers . . .
because wineberries tend to grow in abundance. And be sure to wear good thick socks and
high boots for protection against snakes and poison ivy . . . since the tangled clusters of
canes are often home to both.
Carnelian Cherry
The European Cornel (Cornus mas) is a species of dogwood native to southern Europe and
southwest Asia. In North America, the plant is known by the common name of Cornelian
Cherry.
It is a medium to large deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 5–12 m tall, with dark
brown branches and greenish twigs. The leaves are opposite, 4–10 cm long and 2–4 cm broad,
with an ovate to oblong shape and an entire margin. The flowers are small (5–10 mm
diameter), with four yellow petals, produced in clusters of 10–25 together in the late
winter, well before the leaves appear. The fruit is an oblong red drupe 2 cm long and 1.5
cm in diameter, containing a single seed.
The fruit is edible, but the unripe fruit is astringent. The fruit only fully ripens after
it falls from the tree. When ripe, the fruit is dark ruby red. It has an acidic flavour
which is best described as a mixture of cranberry and sour cherry; it is mainly used for
making jam, makes an excellent sauce similar to cranberry sauce when pitted and then boiled
with sugar and orange, but also can be eaten dried. In Azerbaijan and Armenia, the fruit is
used for distilling vodka, while in Albania it is distilled into raki. In Turkey and Iran
it is eaten with salt as a snack in summer, and traditionally drunk in a cold drink called
kizilcik sherbeti. Cultivars selected for fruit production in Ukraine have fruit up to 4 cm
long. The berries when ripe on the plant bear a resemblance to coffee berries, and ripen in
mid to late summer.
[edit] Flowers
European Cornel flowering
The species is also grown as an ornamental plant for its late winter flowers, which open
earlier than those of forsythia, and, while not as large and vibrant as those of the
forsythia, the entire plant can be used for a similar effect in the landscape.
[edit] Wood
The wood of C. mas is extremely dense, and unlike the wood of most other woody plant
species, sinks in water. This density makes it valuable for crafting into tool handles,
parts for machines, etc.[1] Cornus mas was used from the seventh century B.C. onward by
Greek craftsman to construct spears, javelins and bows, the craftsmen considering it far
superior to any other wood.[2] The wood's association with weaponry was so well known that
the Greek name for it was used as a synonym for "spear" in poetry during the fourth and
third centuries B.C.[2]
The red dye used to make fezzes was produced from its bark and tannin is produced from its
leaves.
Black Raspberry
Rubus occidentalis is a species of Rubus native to eastern North America. Its common name
black raspberry is shared with the closely related western American species Rubus
leucodermis. Other names occasionally used include wild black raspberry, black caps, black
cap raspberry, thimbleberry,[1][2] and scotch cap.[3]
Rubus occidentalis is a deciduous shrub growing to 2–3 m tall, with prickly shoots. The
leaves are pinnate, with five leaflets on leaves strong-growing stems in their first year,
and three leaflets on leaves on flowering branchlets. The flowers are distinct in having
long, slender sepals 6–8 mm long, more than twice as long as the petals. The round-shaped
fruit is a 12–15 mm diameter aggregation of drupelets; it is edible, and has a high content
of anthocyanins and ellagic acid.[4][5]
Black raspberries are high in anthocyanins. This has led to their being very useful as
natural dyes and, since anthocyanins are powerful antioxidants, to a great deal of interest
in them for their potential nutraceutical value. Extensive work has been ongoing at Ohio
State University to evaluate their benefit for cancer treatment in mammalian test
systems,[6] and the first clinical trials on patients with esophageal cancer.[7]
The black raspberry is also closely related to the red raspberries Rubus idaeus and Rubus
strigosus, sharing the distinctively white underside of the leaves and fruit that readily
detaches from the carpel, but differing in the ripe fruit being black, and in the stems
being more prickly. The black fruit makes them look like blackberries, though this is only
superficial, with the taste being unique and not like either the red raspberry or the
blackberry. In much of the Mid-Atlantic United States, black raspberries are simply called
blackberries, even though they are not.
As suggested by the common name, black raspberries usually have very dark purple-black
fruits, rich in anthocyanin pigments. However, due to occasional mutations in the genes
controlling anthocyanin production, yellow-fruited variants (yellow raspberries) sometimes
occur, and have been occasionally propagated, especially in home/farm gardens in the
midwestern United States (e.g., Ohio). The yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry
retain that species' distinctive flavor, different from the similar-appearing pale-fruited
variants of cultivated red raspberries (generally the Eurasian Rubus idaeus, but with some
being the North American Rubus strigosus, and other cultivars representing hybrids between
these two widespread species).
[edit] Commercial growing and processing
A basket of black raspberries
Black raspberries (Rubus occidentalis L.) being grown commercially in Korea
The center for black raspberry production is in the Willamette Valley in Oregon. The main
cultivar, 'Munger', is grown on about 600 ha (1500 acres). Other cultivars include 'John
Robertson', 'Allen', 'Jewel', 'Blackhawk', 'Macblack', 'Plum Farmer', 'Dundee', 'Hanover',
and 'Huron'. The plants are summer tipped by hand, mechanically pruned in winter and then
machine harvested. The yields are generally low per acre and this is why the fruits are
often expensive.
The species has been used in the breeding of many Rubus hybrids; those between red and
black raspberries are common under the name purple raspberries; 'Brandywine', 'Royalty' and
'Estate' are examples of purple raspberry cultivars.
The berries are typically dried, frozen or made into purées and juices or processed as
colorants. Two well known liqueurs predominantly based on black raspberry fruit include
France's Chambord Liqueur Royale de France and South Korea's various manufacturers of
Bokbunja (see Korean alcoholic beverages).
Black Cherry
Prunus serotina, commonly called Black Cherry, Wild Black Cherry, Rum Cherry, or Mountain
Black Cherry, is a woody plant species belonging to the genus Prunus. This cherry is native
to eastern North America: from Eastern Canada through southern Quebec and Ontario; south
through the Eastern United States to Texas and central Florida; with disjunct populations
in Arizona and New Mexico; and in the mountains of Mexico and Guatemala.[2][3]
Immature fruit
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Description
* 2 Subspecies
* 3 Ecology
* 4 Cultivation and uses
* 5 Biochemistry
* 6 References
[edit] Description
The Black Cherry is a species in the subgenus Padus with flowers in racemes, and is a
deciduous tree growing to 15–30 m tall with a trunk diameter of up to 70–120 cm,
occasionally more. The leaves are simple, 6–14 cm long, with a serrated margin. The flowers
are small (10–15 mm diameter), with five white petals and about 20 stamens, and are
fragrant; there are around 40 flowers on each raceme. The fruit is a drupe, 1 cm diameter,
green to red at first, ripening black; it is usually astringent and bitter when eaten
fresh, but also somewhat sweet. The fruit is readily eaten by birds.[2][4]
Closeup of Bark
A mature Black Cherry can easily be identified in a forest by its very broken, dark grey to
black bark, which has the appearance of very thick, burnt potato chips. However, for about
the first decade or so of its life, the bark resembles that of a Birch, and is thin and
striped. It can also quickly be identified by its long, shiny leaves resembling that of a
Sourwood, and by an almond-like odor when a young twig is scratched and held close to the
nose.[5][6]
[edit] Subspecies
There are two subspecies:[7]
* Prunus serotina subsp. serotina. Canada, United States.
* Prunus serotina subsp. capuli (Cav.) McVaugh. Mexico, Guatemala.
The typical subsp. serotina is sometimes further divided into four varieties, var. serotina
in the east of the range, var. eximia in Texas, and vars. rufula and virens in Arizona, New
Mexico and Texas.[3]
Black Cherry is closely related to the Chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), however Chokecherry
is classified as a shrub or small tree and has smaller and less glossy leaves.
[edit] Ecology
The Black Cherry is a pioneer species. In the Midwest, it is seen growing mostly in old
fields with other sunlight loving species, such as Black Walnut, Black locust, and
Hackberry. It is a moderately long-lived tree, with ages of up to 258 years known, though
it is prone to storm damage with branches breaking easily; any decay resulting however only
progresses slowly.[2] It is well known to proliferate in the Allegheny National Forest
region of northwest Pennsylvania.
The Black Cherry is also a host of caterpillars of various Lepidoptera (see List of
Lepidoptera which feed on Prunus). The Eastern tent caterpillar defoliates entire groves
some springs.
Black knot infection
[edit] Cultivation and uses
The fruit is suitable for making jam, cherry pies and has some use in flavoring liqueurs;
they are also a popular flavoring for sodas and used in many ice creams. The black cherry
is commonly used instead of sweet cherries (Prunus avium) in order to achieve a sharper
taste. It is also used in cakes which involve dark chocolate such as a Black Forest gateau
and as garnishes to drinks like cocktails.[citation needed]
The timber is valuable, perhaps the premier cabinetry timber of the U.S., traded as
"cherry". It is known for its strong red color and high price. Its weight per cubic meter
when dried is around 580 kg.[8]
The wood is also used for cooking and smoking foods, where it imparts a unique flavor.
The foliage, particularly when wilted, contains cyanogenic glycosides which convert to
hydrogen cyanide if eaten by animals.[4] It is recommended that farmers remove any Black
Cherry trees that fall in a field containing livestock, because the wilted leaves could
poison the animals. Removal is not always practical though, because Black Cherries often
grow in very large numbers on farms, taking advantage of the light brought about by mowing
and grazing. Entire fencerows can be lined with this poisonous tree, making it difficult to
monitor all the branches falling into the grazing area.
Black Cherry is locally naturalized in parts of Europe, having escaped from cultivation as
an ornamental tree.[9]
P. serotina was widely introduced into Central Europe in the mid 20th century.[10][11] It
has acted as an invasive species there, negatively impacting forest community diversity and
regeneration.[12]
[edit] Biochemistry
Like apricots, the seeds of black cherries contain compounds that can be converted into
cyanide, such as amygdalin.[13][14] These compounds release hydrogen cyanide when the seed
is ground or minced, which releases enzymes that break down the compounds. These enzymes
include amygdalin beta-glucosidase, prunasin beta-glucosidase and mandelonitrile lyase.[15]
In contrast, although the flesh of cherries also contain these compounds, they do not
contain the enzymes needed to produce cyanide, so the flesh is safe to eat.
Black Birch
Betula lenta (Sweet Birch, also known as Black Birch, Cherry Birch, Mahogany Birch, or
Spice Birch) is a species of birch native to eastern North America, from southern Maine
west to southernmost Ontario, and south in the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia.
[edit] Characteristics and habitat
It is a medium-sized deciduous tree reaching 20 m tall with a trunk up to 60 cm diameter.
The bark is (unlike most birches) rough, dark blackish-brown, cracking into irregular scaly
plates. The twigs, when scraped, have a strong scent of oil of wintergreen. The leaves are
alternate, ovate, 5-10 cm long and 4-8 cm broad, with a finely serrated margin. The flowers
are wind-pollinated catkins 3-6 cm long, the male catkins pendulous, the female catkins
erect. The fruit, maturing in fall, is composed of numerous tiny winged seeds packed
between the catkin bracts.
[edit] Uses
Betula lenta was used commercially in the past for production of oil of wintergreen before
modern industrial synthesis; the tree's name reflects this scent of the shoots.
The sap flows about a month later than maple sap, and much faster. The trees can be tapped
in a similar fashion, but must be gathered about three times more often. Birch sap can be
boiled the same as maple sap, but its syrup is stronger (like molasses).
Betula lenta's leaves serve as food for some lepidopteran caterpillars. See List of
Lepidoptera that feed on birches.
Growing in forests throughout eastern North America, this common native tree's cambium (the
green layer under the bark) contains the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory oil of
wintergreen, which you can smell if you scratch-and-sniff the twigs or bark.
Chew on the delicious twigs like chewing gum (this also alleviates bad breath), or steep
them for tea. A strong cup may be the equivalent of 1/4 to 1/2 an aspirin.
Chewing on the twigs tastes great, and it reduces the pain of teething.
Wild Blackberries
The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by any of several species in the Rubus genus of
the Rosaceae family. The fruit is not a true berry; botanically it is termed an aggregate
fruit, composed of small drupelets. The plants typically have biennial canes and perennial
roots. Blackberries and raspberries are also called caneberries or brambles. It is a
widespread, and well known group of over 375 species, many of which are closely related
apomictic microspecies native throughout the temperate northern hemisphere and South
America.[1]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Growth and anatomical description
* 2 Ecology
* 3 Cultivation and uses
o 3.1 Diseases and pests
o 3.2 Commercial cultivars
* 4 Nutrients and antioxidant qualities
o 4.1 Nutrient content of seeds
* 5 Superstition and myths
* 6 Gallery
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 External links
[edit] Growth and anatomical description
Blackberries are perennial plants which typically bear biennial stems ("canes") from the
perennial root system.[2]
In its first year, a new stem, the primocane, grows vigorously to its full length of 3–6 m
(in some cases, up to 9 m), arching or trailing along the ground and bearing large
palmately compound leaves with five or seven leaflets; it does not produce any flowers. In
its second year, the cane becomes a floricane and the stem does not grow longer, but the
lateral buds break to produce flowering laterals (which have smaller leaves with three or
five leaflets).[2] First and second year shoots usually have numerous short curved very
sharp prickles. Prickle-free cultivars have been developed. Recently the University of
Arkansas has developed primocane fruiting blackberries that grow and flower on first year
growth much as the primocane-fruiting (also called fall bearing or everbearing) red
raspberries do.
Unmanaged mature plants form a tangle of dense arching stems, the branches rooting from the
node tip on many species when they reach the ground. Vigorous and growing rapidly in woods,
scrub, hillsides and hedgerows, blackberry shrubs tolerate poor soils, readily colonizing
wasteland, ditches and vacant lots.[1][3]
The flowers are produced in late spring and early summer on short racemes on the tips of
the flowering laterals.[2] Each flower is about 2–3 cm in diameter with five white or pale
pink petals.[2]
A bee pollinating blackberries
The drupelets only develop around ovules that are fertilized by the male gamete from a
pollen grain. The most likely cause of undeveloped ovules is inadequate pollinator
visits.[4] Even a small change in conditions, such as a rainy day or a day too hot for bees
to work after early morning, can reduce the number of bee visits to the flower, thus
reducing the quality of the fruit. Incomplete drupelet development can also be a symptom of
exhausted reserves in the plant's roots, or infection with a virus such as Raspberry bushy
dwarf virus.
In botanical terminology, the fruit is not a berry, but an aggregate fruit of numerous
drupelets.
[edit] Ecology
Blackberry leaves are food for certain caterpillars; some grazing mammals, especially deer,
are also very fond of the leaves. Caterpillars of the concealer moth Alabonia geoffrella
have been found feeding inside dead blackberry shoots.
[edit] Cultivation and uses
Primary cultivation takes place in the state of Oregon located in the United States of
America. Recorded in 1995 and 2006: 6,180 acres (25.0 km2) to 6,900 acres (28 km2) of
blackberries, producing 42.6 to 41.5 million pounds, making Oregon the leading blackberry
producer in the world.[5][6] While Oregon may lead the world in volume of fruit produced,
Serbia has tremendous acreage and Mexico has had dramatically increasing acreage and may
soon lead the world.
The soft fruit is popular for use in desserts, jams, seedless jellies and sometimes wine.
It is often mixed with apples for pies and crumbles.
Good nectar producers, blackberry shrubs bearing flowers yield a medium to dark, fruity
honey.
Blackberry flower.
The blackberry is known to contain polyphenol antioxidants, naturally occurring chemicals
that can upregulate certain beneficial metabolic processes in mammals. The astringent
blackberry root is sometimes used in herbal medicine as a treatment for diarrhea and
dysentery.[7] The related but smaller dewberry can be distinguished by the white, waxy
coating on the fruits, which also usually have fewer drupelets. (Rubus caesius) is in its
own section (Caesii) within the subgenus Rubus.
In some parts of the world, such as in Australia, Chile, New Zealand and the Pacific
Northwest region of North America, some blackberry species, particularly Rubus armeniacus
(syn. R. procerus, 'Himalaya') and Rubus laciniatus ('Evergreen') are naturalised and
considered an invasive species and a serious weed.[1]
As there is forensic evidence from the Iron Age Haraldskær Woman that she consumed
blackberries some 2500 years ago, it is reasonable to conclude that blackberries have been
eaten by humans over thousands of years.
[edit] Diseases and pests
Wiki letter w cropped.svg This section requires expansion.
The spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii is a serious pest of blackberries. Unlike
its vinegar fly relatives which are primarily attracted to rotting or fermented fruit, D.
suzukii attacks fresh, ripe fruit by laying eggs under the soft skin. The larvae hatch and
grow in the fruit, destroying the fruit's commercial value.
[edit] Commercial cultivars
Black Butte blackberry
Numerous cultivars have been selected for commercial and amateur cultivation in Europe[1]
and United States.[8] Since the many species form hybrids easily, there are numerous
cultivars with more than one species in their ancestry.
'Marion' (marketed as "marionberry") is an important cultivar that was selected from
seedlings from a cross between 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' (commonly called "olallieberry")
berries.[9] It is claimed to "capture the best attributes of both berries and yields an
aromatic bouquet and an intense blackberry flavor". The marionberry was introduced by
George F. Waldo of the USDA-ARS in Corvallis, Oregon in 1956. Adapted to Western Oregon,
the marionberry is named after Marion County, Oregon, in which it was tested extensively.
'Olallie' in turn is a cross between loganberry and youngberry. 'Marion', 'Chehalem' and
'Olallie' are just three of many trailing blackberry cultivars developed by the United
States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) blackberry
breeding program at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon.
The most recent cultivars released from this program are the thornless cultivars 'Black
Diamond', 'Black Pearl' and 'Nightfall' as well as the very early ripening 'Obsidian' and
'Metolius'. 'Black Diamond' is now the leading cultivar being planted in the Pacific
Northwest. Some of the other cultivars from this program are 'Waldo', 'Siskiyou', 'Black
Butte', 'Kotata', 'Pacific' and 'Cascade'.[10]
Trailing blackberries are vigorous, crown forming, require a trellis for support, and are
less cold hardy than the erect or semi-erect blackberries. In addition to the U.S. Pacific
Northwest, these types do well in similar climates such as the United Kingdom, New Zealand,
Chile, and the Mediterranean countries.
Semi-erect, thornless blackberries were first developed at the John Innes Centre in
Norwich, UK, and subsequently by the USDA-ARS in Beltsville, Maryland. These are crown
forming, very vigorous, and need a trellis for support. Cultivars include 'Black Satin'
'Chester Thornless', 'Dirksen Thornless', 'Hull Thornless', 'Loch Ness', 'Loch Tay',
'Merton Thornless', 'Smoothstem' and 'Triple Crown'. Recently, the cultivar 'Cacanska
Bestrna' (also called 'Cacak Thornless') has been developed in Serbia and has been planted
on many thousands of hectares there.
The University of Arkansas has developed cultivars of erect blackberries. These types are
less vigorous than the semi-erect types and produce new canes from root initials (therefore
they spread underground like raspberries). There are thornless and thorny cultivars from
this program, including 'Navaho', 'Ouachita', 'Cherokee', 'Apache', 'Arapaho' and 'Kiowa'.
They are also responsible for developing the primocane fruiting blackberries such as
'Prime-Jan' and 'Prime-Jim'.
In raspberries, these types are called primocane fruiting, fall fruiting, or everbearing.
'Prime-Jim' and 'Prime-Jan' were released in 2004 and are the first cultivars of primocane
fruiting blackberry.[citation needed] They grow much like the other erect cultivars
described above, however the canes that emerge in the spring, will flower in mid-summer and
fruit in late summer or fall. The fall crop has its highest quality when it ripens in cool
mild climate such as in California or the Pacific Northwest.[citation needed]
'Illini Hardy' a semi-erect thorny cultivar introduced by the University of Illinois is
cane hardy in zone 5, where traditionally blackberry production has been problematic, since
canes often failed to survive the winter.
The blackberry tends to be red during its unripe ("green") phase, leading to an old
expression that "blackberries are red when they're green".
In various parts of the United States, wild blackberries are sometimes called "Black-caps",
a term more commonly used for black raspberries, Rubus occidentalis.
Blackberry production in Mexico has expanded enormously in the past decade. While once
based on the cultivar 'Brazos', an old erect blackberry cultivar developed in Texas in
1959, the Mexican industry is now dominated by the Brazilian 'Tupy' released in the 1990s.
'Tupy' has the erect blackberry 'Comanche' and a "wild Uruguayan blackberry" as
parents.[11] Since there are no native blackberries in Uruguay, the suspicion is that the
widely grown 'Boysenberry' is the male parent. In order to produce these blackberries in
regions of Mexico where there is no winter chilling to stimulate flower bud development,
chemical defoliation and application of growth regulators are used to bring the plants into
bloom.
[edit] Nutrients and antioxidant qualities
Blackberries are notable for their high nutritional contents of dietary fiber, vitamin C,
vitamin K, folic acid - a B vitamin, and the essential mineral, manganese (table).
Nutrients in raw blackberries[12] Nutrient Value per 100 grams % Daily Value
Energy 43 kcal
Fiber, total dietary 5.3 g 21%
Sugars, total 4.9 g
Calcium, Ca 29 mg 3%
Magnesium, Mg 20 mg 5%
Manganese, Mn 0.6 mg 32%
Copper, Cu 0.2 mg 8%
Potassium, K 162 mg 5%
Sodium, Na 1 mg 0%
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid 21 mg 35%
Vitamin A, IU 214 IU 4%
Vitamin K, µg 20 µg 25%
Folic acid, µg 36 µg 9%
Carotene, beta 128 µg ne
Lutein + zeaxanthin 118 µg ne
ne: Daily Value not established
Blackberries rank highly among fruits for antioxidant strength, particularly due to their
dense contents of polyphenolic compounds, such as ellagic acid, tannins, ellagitannins,
quercetin, gallic acid, anthocyanins and cyanidins.[13][14]
Blackberries have an ORAC value (oxygen radical absorbance capacity) of 5347 per 100 grams,
including them among the top-ranked ORAC fruits. Another report using a different assay for
assessing antioxidant strength placed blackberry at the top of more than 1000 antioxidant
foods consumed in the United States.[15]
[edit] Nutrient content of seeds
Blackberries are exceptional among other Rubus berries for their numerous, large seeds not
always preferred by consumers. They contain rich amounts of omega-3 (alpha-linolenic acid)
and -6 fats (linoleic acid), protein, dietary fiber, carotenoids, ellagitannins and ellagic
acid.
Beach Plum
Prunus maritima (Beach Plum) is a species of plum native to the Atlantic coast of North
America, from Maine south to Maryland.[1][2] Although sometimes listed as extending to New
Brunswick, the species is not known from collections there, and does not appear in the most
authoritative works on the flora of that Canadian province.[3]
It is a deciduous shrub, in its natural sand dune habitat growing 1-2 m high, although it
can grow larger, up to 4 m tall, when cultivated in gardens. The leaves are alternate,
elliptical, 3-7 cm long and 2-4 cm broad, with a sharply serrated margin. They are colored
green on top and pale below, becoming showy in the autumn. The flowers are 1-1.5 cm
diameter, with five white petals and large yellow anthers. The fruit is an edible drupe
1.5-2 cm diameter in the wild plant.[4][5]
A plant with rounded leaves, of which only a single specimen has ever been found in the
wild, has been described as Prunus maritima var. gravesii (Small) G.J.Anderson,[6] though
its taxonomic status is questionable, and it may be better considered a cultivar Prunus
maritima 'Gravesii'.[7] The original plant, found in Connecticut, died in about 2000, but
it is maintained in cultivation from rooted cuttings.[6]
The plant is salt-tolerant and cold-hardy. It prefers the full sun and well-drained soil.
It spreads roots by putting out suckers but in coarse soil puts down a tap root. In dunes
it is often partly buried in drifting sand. It blooms in mid-May and June. The fruit ripens
in August and early September.
The species is endangered in Maine, where it is in serious decline due to commercial
development of its beach habitats.[4]
[edit] Cultivation and uses
The species is grown commercially for its fruit to a small extent, used to make jam.[8] It
can be eaten out of hand and usually is a sweet snack although it is much smaller in size
when compared to the longer cultivated Asian varieties found in the supermarket. A number
of cultivars have been selected for larger and better flavored fruit, including 'Eastham',
'Oceanview', 'Hancock' and 'Squibnocket'
PEACH AND NECTARINE
The peach tree (Prunus persica) is a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible
juicy fruit called a peach. It is a deciduous tree growing to 4–10 m (13–33 ft) tall,
belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. It is classified with the
almond in the subgenus Amygdalus within the genus Prunus, distinguished from the other
subgenera by the corrugated seed shell.
The leaves are lanceolate, 7–16 cm (2.8–6.3 in) long, 2–3 cm (0.79–1.2 in) broad, pinnately
veined. The flowers are produced in early spring before the leaves; they are solitary or
paired, 2.5–3 cm diameter, pink, with five petals. The fruit has yellow or whitish flesh, a
delicate aroma, and a skin that is either velvety (peaches) or smooth (nectarines) in
different cultivars. The flesh is very delicate and easily bruised in some cultivars, but
is fairly firm in some commercial varieties, especially when green. The single, large seed
is red-brown, oval shaped, approximately 1.3–2 cm long, and is surrounded by a wood-like
husk. Peaches, along with cherries, plums and apricots, are stone fruits (drupes).
The scientific name persica, along with the word "peach" itself and its cognates in many
European languages, derives from an early European belief that peaches were native to
Persia (now Iran). The modern botanical consensus is that they originate in China, and were
introduced to Persia and the Mediterranean region along the Silk Road before Christian
times.[1] Cultivated peaches are divided into clingstones and freestones, depending on
whether the flesh sticks to the stone or not; both can have either white or yellow flesh.
Peaches with white flesh typically are very sweet with little acidity, while yellow-fleshed
peaches typically have an acidic tang coupled with sweetness, though this also varies
greatly. Both colours often have some red on their skin. Low-acid white-fleshed peaches are
the most popular kinds in China, Japan, and neighbouring Asian countries, while Europeans
and North Americans have historically favoured the acidic, yellow-fleshed kinds.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
* 2 Cultivation
o 2.1 Nectarines
o 2.2 Diseases
o 2.3 Planting
o 2.4 Storage
* 3 Asian tradition
* 4 Nutrition and health
* 5 Gallery
* 6 References
* 7 External links
[edit] History
Although its botanical name Prunus persica suggests the peach is native to Persia, peaches
actually originated in China where they have been cultivated since the early days of
Chinese culture. Peaches were mentioned in Chinese writings as far back as the 10th century
BC and were a favoured fruit of kings and emperors. Recently, the history of cultivation of
peaches in China has been extensively reviewed citing numerous original manuscripts dating
back to 1100 BC.[2]
Its English name derives originally from the Latin Prunus persica, then persica, then
pessica, then pesca, then the French pêche, then peach in Middle English.[citation needed]
The peach was brought to India and Western Asia in ancient times.[3] Alexander the Great
introduced the fruit into Europe after he conquered the Persians.[3] Then it was brought to
the Americas by Spanish explorers in the 16th century and eventually made it to England and
France in the 17th century, where it was a prized, albeit rare, treat.[citation needed]
The horticulturist George Minifie supposedly brought the first peaches from England to its
North American colonies in the early 17th century, planting them at his Estate of Buckland
in Virginia.[4]
Various American Indian tribes are credited with spreading the peach tree across the United
States, taking seeds along with them and planting as they roved the country.
Although Thomas Jefferson had peach trees at Monticello, United States farmers did not
begin commercial production until the 19th century in Maryland, Delaware, Georgia and
finally Virginia. California today grows 65% of peaches grown for commercial production in
the United States,[5] but the states of Colorado, Michigan, and Washington also grow a
significant amount. Italy, China, India and Greece are major producers of peaches outside
of the United States.
In 2010, a team of researchers at Clemson University, USA, announced they had sequenced the
peach tree genome (doubled haploid Lovell).[6][7]
[edit] Cultivation
Worldwide peach and nectarine output in 2005. The major producer, China, is in green;
smaller producers are in yellow; the smallest producers are in red.
Peach plants grow very well in a fairly limited range, since they have a chilling
requirement that tropical areas cannot satisfy, and they are not very cold-hardy. The trees
themselves can usually tolerate temperatures to around -26 to -30 °C (-15 to -22 °F),
although the following season's flower buds are usually killed at these temperatures,
leading to no crop that summer. Flower bud kill begins to occur between -15 and -25 °C (5
and -13 °F) depending on the cultivar (some are more cold-tolerant than others) and the
timing of the cold, with the buds becoming less cold tolerant in late winter.[8] Certain
cultivars are more tender and others can tolerate a few degrees colder. In addition, a lot
of summer heat is required to mature the crop, with mean temperatures of the hottest month
between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F). Another problematic issue in many peach-growing areas
is spring frost. The trees tend to flower fairly early in spring. The blooms often can be
damaged or killed by freezes; typically, if temperatures drop below about −4 °C (24.8 °F),
most flowers will be killed. However, if the flowers are not fully open, they can tolerate
a couple of degrees colder.[citation needed]
Important historical peach-producing areas are China, Iran, France, and the Mediterranean
countries like Italy, Spain and Greece. More recently, the United States (where the three
largest-producing states are California, South Carolina,[9] and Georgia[10]), Canada
(British Columbia), and Australia (the Riverland region) have also become important; peach
growing in the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario, Canada, was formerly intensive but slowed
substantially in 2008 when the last fruit cannery in Canada was closed by the
proprietors.[11] Oceanic climate areas like the Pacific Northwest and coastline of North
Western Europe are generally not satisfactory for peach-growing due to inadequate summer
heat, though they are sometimes grown trained against south-facing walls to catch extra
heat from the sun. Trees grown in a sheltered and south-facing position in the southeast of
England are capable of producing both flowers and a large crop of fruit. In Vietnam, the
most famous variety of peach fruit product is grown in Mẫu Sơn commune, Lộc Bình district,
Lạng Sơn province.
For home gardeners, semi-dwarf (3 to 4 m (9.8 to 13 ft)) and dwarf (2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to
9 ft 10 in)) varieties have been developed by grafting desirable cultivars onto dwarfing
rootstock. Fruit size is not affected. Another mutation is flowering peaches, selected for
ornamental display rather than fruit production.
Depending on climate and cultivar, peach harvest can occur from late May into August;
harvest from each tree lasts about a week.
[edit] Nectarines
White nectarines, whole and cut open
The nectarine is a cultivar group of peach that has a smooth skin. Though fuzzy peaches and
nectarines are regarded commercially as different fruits, with nectarines often erroneously
believed to be a crossbreed between peaches and plums, or a "peach with a plum skin", they
belong to the same species as peaches. Several genetic studies have concluded in fact that
nectarines are created due to a recessive gene, whereas a fuzzy peach skin is dominant.[12]
Nectarines have arisen many times from peach trees, often as bud sports.
As with peaches, nectarines can be white or yellow, and clingstone or freestone. On
average, nectarines are slightly smaller and sweeter than peaches, but with much
overlap.[12] The lack of skin fuzz can make nectarine skins appear more reddish than those
of peaches, contributing to the fruit's plum-like appearance. The lack of down on
nectarines' skin also means their skin is more easily bruised than peaches.
The history of the nectarine is unclear; the first recorded mention in English is from
1616,[13] but they had probably been grown much earlier within the native range of the
peach in central and eastern Asia. Nectarines were introduced into the United States by
David Fairchild of the Department of Agriculture in 1906.[14]
[edit] Diseases
Main article: List of peach and nectarine diseases
The trees are prone to a disease called leaf curl, which usually does not directly affect
the fruit but does reduce the crop yield by partially defoliating the tree. The fruit is
very susceptible to brown rot, or a dark reddish spot.
[edit] Planting
The developmental sequence of a nectarine over a 7 1⁄2-month period, from bud formation in
early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer (see image page for further information)
Most peach trees sold by nurseries are named cultivars budded or grafted onto a suitable
rootstock. It is also possible to grow a tree from either a peach or nectarine seed, but
the fruit quality of the resulting tree will be very unpredictable.
Peaches should be located in full sun, and with good air flow. This allows cold air to flow
away on frosty nights and keeps the area cool in summer. Peaches are best planted in early
winter, as this allows time for the roots to establish and to sustain the new spring
growth. When planting in rows, plant north–south.
For optimum growth, peach trees require a constant supply of water. This should be
increased shortly before the harvest. The best tasting fruit is produced when the peach is
watered throughout the season. Drip irrigation is ideal, with at least one dripper per
tree. Although it is better to use multiple drippers around the tree, this is not
necessary. A quarter of the root being watered is sufficient.
Peaches have a high nutrient requirement, needing more nitrogen than most other fruit
trees. An NPK fertilizer can be applied regularly, and an additional mulch of poultry
manure in autumn soon after the harvest will benefit the tree. If the leaves of the peach
are yellow or small, the tree needs more nitrogen. Blood meal and bone meal, 3–5 kilograms
(6.6–11 lb) per mature tree, or calcium ammonium nitrate, 0.5–1 kilogram (1.1–2.2 lb), are
suitable fertilizers. This also applies if the tree is putting forth little growth.
If the full amount of peaches is left, they will be under-sized and lacking in sugar and
flavour. In dry conditions, extra watering is important. The fruit should be thinned when
they have reached 2 centimetres (0.79 in) in diameter, usually about two months after
flowering. Fresh fruit are best consumed on the day of picking, and do not keep well. They
are best eaten when the fruit is slightly soft, having aroma, and heated by the sun.
[edit] Storage
Peaches should be stored at room temperature and refrigeration should be avoided as this
can lessen the taste of the peach. Peaches do not ripen after being picked from the tree,
so storing for ripening is not necessary.[15]
[edit] Asian tradition
This section contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see
question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.
The Chinese flat peach, also called Paraguaya (Paraguayan)
Peaches are known in China, Japan, Korea, Laos, and Vietnam not only as a popular fruit but
for the many folk tales and traditions associated with it.
In China, the peach （Chinese: 桃; pinyin: táo) was said to be consumed by the immortals due
to its mystic virtue of conferring longevity on all who ate them. The divinity Yu Huang,
also called the Jade Emperor, and his mother Xi Wangmu, also known as Queen Mother of the
West, ensured the gods' everlasting existence by feeding them the peaches of immortality.
The immortals residing in the palace of Xi Wangmu were said to celebrate an extravagant
banquet called the Pantao Hui or "The Feast of Peaches". The immortals waited six thousand
years before gathering for this magnificent feast; the peach tree put forth leaves once
every thousand years and it required another three thousand years for the fruit to ripen.
Ivory statues depicting Xi Wangmu's attendants often held three peaches.
A Chinese Song Dynasty painting of a bird and peach blossom, by Emperor Huizong of Song,
11th century. The bird resembles and is most likely a type of pigeon. A favourite of many
pigeons are leaves of the plum family (which includes peaches etc).
. The peach often plays an important part in Chinese tradition and is symbolic of long
life. One example is in the peach-gathering story of Zhang Daoling, who some say is the
true founder of Taoism. Elder Zhang Guo, one of the Chinese Eight Immortals, is often
depicted carrying a Peach of Immortality. Peach blossoms are highly prized in Chinese
culture and because they appear before a single leaf has sprouted, the ancient Chinese
believed the peach to possess more vitality than any other tree. When early rulers of China
visited their territories they were preceded by sorcerers armed with peach rods to protect
them from spectral evils. On the last day of the year local magistrates would cut peach
wood branches and place them over their doors to protect against evil influences.[16] Peach
kernels (桃仁 táo rén) are a common ingredient used in Traditional Chinese medicine to dispel
blood stasis, counter inflammation and reduce allergies.[17]
It was in an orchard of flowering peach trees that Liu Bei, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei took an
oath of brotherhood in the opening chapter of the classic Chinese novel Romance of the
Three Kingdoms.
Momotaro, one of Japan's most noble and semi-historical heroes, was born from within an
enormous peach floating down a stream. Momotaro or "Peach Boy" went on to fight evil oni
and face many adventures.
In Korea, peaches have been cultivated from ancient times. According to Samguk Sagi, peach
trees were planted during the Three Kingdoms of Korea period, and Sallim gyeongje also
mentions cultivation skills of peach trees. Peach is seen as the fruit of happiness,
riches, honours and longevity. It is one of the ten immortal plants and animals, so peach
appears in many minhwa (folk painting). It is believed that peach and peach trees chase
away spirits, so peach is not placed on the table for jesa (ancestor veneration) unlike
other fruits.[18][19]
A Vietnamese mythic history states that, in the spring of 1789, after marching to Ngọc Hồi
and then winning a great victory against invaders from the Qing Dynasty of China, the King
Quang Trung ordered a messenger to gallop to Phú Xuân citadel (Huế nowadays) and deliver a
flowering peach branch to the Princess Ngọc Hân. This took place on the fifth day of the
first lunar month, two days before the predicted end of the battle. The branch of peach
flowers that was sent from the North to the Centre of Vietnam was not only a message of
victory from the King to his wife, but also the start of a new spring of peace and
happiness for all the Vietnamese people. In addition to that, since the land of Nhật Tân
had freely given that very branch of peach flowers to the King, it became the loyal garden
of his dynasty.
A peach tree is also the context in which Kim Trọng and Thuý Kiều fell in love in The Tale
of Kieu. And in Vietnam, the blossoming peach flower is the signal of spring. Finally,
peach bonsai trees are used as decoration during Vietnamese New Year (Tết) in Northern
Vietnam.
[edit] Nutrition and health
Wiki letter w cropped.svg This section requires expansion.
A medium peach 75 g (2.6 oz), has 30 Cal, 7 g of carbohydrate (6 g sugars and 1 g fibre), 1
g of protein, 140 mg of potassium, and 8% of the daily value (DV) for vitamin C.[20]
As with many other members of the rose family, peach seeds contain cyanogenic glycosides,
including amygdalin (note the subgenus designation: Amygdalus). These substances are
capable of decomposing into a sugar molecule and hydrogen cyanide gas. While peach seeds
are not the most toxic within the rose family, that dubious honour going to the bitter
almond, large doses of these chemicals from any source are hazardous to human health.
Peach allergy or intolerance is a relatively common form of hypersensitivity to proteins
contained in peaches and related fruit (almonds). Symptoms range from local symptoms (e.g.
oral allergy syndrome, contact urticaria) to systemic symptoms including anaphylaxis (e.g.
urticaria, angioedema, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms).[21] Adverse reactions
are related to the "freshness" of the fruit: peeled or canned fruit may be tolerated.
Apples
The apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in the rose
family (Rosaceae). It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely
known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans.
The tree originated in Western Asia, where its wild ancestor, the Alma, is still found
today. There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples, resulting in a range of desired
characteristics. Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when
grown on the same rootstock.[2]
At least 55 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2005, with a value of about
$10 billion. China produced about 35% of this total.[3] The United States is the
second-leading producer, with more than 7.5% of world production. Iran is third, followed
by Turkey, Russia, Italy and India.
In the wild, apples grow quite readily from seeds. However, like most perennial fruits,
apples are ordinarily propagated asexually by grafting. This is because seedling apples are
an example of "extreme heterozygotes", in that rather than inheriting DNA from their
parents to create a new apple with those characteristics, they are instead different from
their parents, sometimes radically.[28] Triploids have an additional reproductive barrier
in that the 3 sets of chromosomes cannot be divided evenly during meiosis, yielding unequal
segregation of the chromosomes (aneuploids). Even in the very unusual case when a triploid
plant can produce a seed (apples are an example), it happens infrequently, and seedlings
rarely survive.[29] Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by
chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics.[30]
The words 'seedling', 'pippin', and 'kernel' in the name of an apple cultivar suggest that
it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form bud sports (mutations on a single
branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some
differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars.[31]
Breeders can produce more rigid apples through crossing.[32] For example, the Excelsior
Experiment Station of the University of Minnesota has, since the 1930s, introduced a steady
progression of important hardy apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by
backyard orchardists, throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin. Its most important introductions
have included 'Haralson' (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota),
'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and 'Honeycrisp'.
Apples have been acclimatized in Ecuador at very high altitudes, where they provide crops
twice per year because of constant temperate conditions in a whole year.[33]
Apple rootstocks
See also: Malling series
Rootstocks used to control tree size have been used in apple cultivation for over 2,000
years. Dwarfing rootstocks were probably discovered by chance in Asia. Alexander the Great
sent samples of dwarf apple trees back to his teacher, Aristotle, in Greece. They were
maintained at the Lyceum, a center of learning in Greece.
Most modern apple rootstocks were bred in the 20th century. Much research into the existing
rootstocks was begun at the East Malling Research Station in Kent, England. Following that
research, Malling worked with the John Innes Institute and Long Ashton to produce a series
of different rootstocks with disease resistance and a range of different sizes, which have
been used all over the world.
Pollination
See also: Fruit tree pollination
Apple tree in flower
Orchard mason bee on apple bloom, British Columbia, Canada
Apples are self-incompatible; they must cross-pollinate to develop fruit. During the
flowering each season, apple growers usually provide pollinators to carry the pollen. Honey
bees are most commonly used. Orchard mason bees are also used as supplemental pollinators
in commercial orchards. Bumblebee queens are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually
in enough quantity to be significant pollinators.[31]
There are four to seven pollination groups in apples, depending on climate:
* Group A – Early flowering, May 1 to 3 in England (Gravenstein, Red Astrachan)
* Group B – May 4 to 7 (Idared, McIntosh)
* Group C – Mid-season flowering, May 8 to 11 (Granny Smith, Cox's Orange Pippin)
* Group D – Mid/late season flowering, May 12 to 15 (Golden Delicious, Calville blanc
d'hiver)
* Group E – Late flowering, May 16 to 18 (Braeburn, Reinette d'Orléans)
* Group F – May 19 to 23 (Suntan)
* Group H – May 24 to 28 (Court-Pendu Gris) (also called Court-Pendu plat)
One cultivar can be pollinated by a compatible cultivar from the same group or close (A
with A, or A with B, but not A with C or D).[34]
Varieties are sometimes classed as to the day of peak bloom in the average 30 day blossom
period, with pollinizers selected from varieties within a 6 day overlap period.
Maturation and harvest
See also: Fruit picking and Fruit tree pruning
Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the
same rootstock. Some cultivars, if left unpruned, will grow very large, which allows them
to bear much more fruit, but makes harvesting very difficult. Mature trees typically bear
40–200 kilograms (88–440 lb) of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero
in poor years. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit
amongst the branches. Dwarf trees will bear about 10–80 kilograms (22–180 lb) of fruit per
year.[31]
Storage
Commercially, apples can be stored for some months in controlled-atmosphere chambers to
delay ethylene-induced onset of ripening. The apples are commonly stored in chambers with
higher concentrations of carbon dioxide with high air filtration. This prevents ethylene
concentrations from rising to higher amounts and preventing ripening from moving too
quickly. Ripening continues when the fruit is removed.[35] For home storage, most varieties
of apple can be held for approximately two weeks when kept at the coolest part of the
refrigerator (i.e. below 5°C). Some types, including the Granny Smith and Fuji, have a
longer shelf life.[36]
Pests and diseases
Leaves with significant insect damage
Main article: List of apple diseases
See also: List of Lepidoptera that feed on apple trees
The trees are susceptible to a number of fungal and bacterial diseases and insect pests.
Many commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical sprays to maintain high
fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. A trend in orchard management is the use of
organic methods. These use a less aggressive and direct methods of conventional farming.
Instead of spraying potent chemicals, often shown to be potentially dangerous and
maleficent to the tree in the long run, organic methods include encouraging or discouraging
certain cycles and pests. To control a specific pest, organic growers might encourage the
prosperity of its natural predator instead of outright killing it, and with it the natural
biochemistry around the tree. Organic apples generally have the same or greater taste than
conventionally grown apples, with reduced cosmetic appearances.[37]
A wide range of pests and diseases can affect the plant; three of the more common
diseases/pests are mildew, aphids and apple scab.
* Mildew: which is characterized by light grey powdery patches appearing on the leaves,
shoots and flowers, normally in spring. The flowers will turn a creamy yellow colour and
will not develop correctly. This can be treated in a manner not dissimilar from treating
Botrytis; eliminating the conditions which caused the disease in the first place and
burning the infected plants are among the recommended actions to take.[38][38]
Feeding aphids
* Aphids: There are five species of aphids commonly found on apples: apple grain aphid,
rosy apple aphid, apple aphid, spirea aphid and the woolly apple aphid. The aphid species
can be identified by their colour, the time of year when they are present and by
differences in the cornicles, which are small paired projections from the rear of
aphids.[38] Aphids feed on foliage using needle-like mouth parts to suck out plant juices.
When present in high numbers, certain species reduce tree growth and vigor.[39]
* Apple scab: Symptoms of scab are olive-green or brown blotches on the leaves.[40] The
blotches turn more brown as time progresses, then brown scabs form on the fruit.[38] The
diseased leaves will fall early and the fruit will become increasingly covered in scabs -
eventually the fruit skin will crack. Although there are chemicals to treat scab, their use
might not be encouraged as they are quite often systematic, which means they are absorbed
by the tree, and spread throughout the fruit.[40]
Among the most serious disease problems are fireblight, a bacterial disease; and
Gymnosporangium rust, and black spot, two fungal diseases.[39]
Young apple trees are also prone to mammal pests like mice and deer, which feed on the soft
bark of the trees, especially in winter.
American Hackberry
Celtis occidentalis, commonly known as the Common hackberry, is a medium-size deciduous
tree native to North America. It is also known as the nettletree, beaverwood, northern
hackberry, and American hackberry.[1] It is a moderately long-lived[1] hardwood[1] with a
light-colored wood, yellowish gray to light brown with yellow streaks.[2]
The Common Hackberry is easily distinguished from elms and some other hackberries by its
cork-like bark with wart-like protuberances. The leaves are distinctly asymmetrical and
coarse-textured. It produces small berries that turn orange-red to dark purple in the
Autumn, often staying on the trees for several months. The Common Hackberry is easily
confused with the sugarberry (Celtis laevigata) and is most easily distinguished by range
and habitat. The Common Hackberry also has wider leaves that are coarser above than the
sugarberry.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Description
* 2 Distribution and habitat
* 3 Ecology
* 4 Cultivation and uses
* 5 References
* 6 External links
[edit] Description
Bark
Usually the Common Hackberry forms a medium sized tree, thirty to fifty feet in height,[1]
with a slender trunk; however, it can rise to the height of one hundred and thirty feet, in
the best conditions in the southern Mississippi valley area. In the middle states of its
range it seldom attains a height of more than sixty feet, and has a handsome round-topped
head and pendulous branches. It prefers rich moist soil, but will grow on gravelly or rocky
hillsides. The roots are fibrous and it grows rapidly.[3] In the western part of its range
with less rainfall and poorer soils it normally averages about thirty feet in height, but
at least one specimen was found at ninety five feet.[1] The maximum age attained by
hackberry is probably between 150 and 200 years in ideal conditions.[1]
The bark is light brown or silvery gray, broken on the surface into thick appressed scales
and sometimes roughened with excrescenses; pattern is very distinctive. The branchlets are
slender, light green at first, finally red brown, at length become dark brown tinged with
red. The winter buds are axillary, ovate, acute, somewhat flattened, one-fourth of an inch
long, light brown. Scales enlarge with the growing shoot, the innermost becoming stipules.
No terminal bud is formed. The leaves are alternately arranged on stems, ovate to
ovate-lanceolate, more or less falcate, two and a half to four inches (102 mm) long, one to
two inches wide, very oblique at the base, serrate, except at the base which is mostly
entire, acute. Three-nerved, midrib and primary veins prominent. They come out of the bud
conduplicate with slightly involute margins, pale yellow green, downy; when full grown are
thin, bright green, rough above, paler green beneath. In autumn they turn to a light
yellow. Petioles slender, slightly grooved, hairy. Stipules varying in form, caducous.
Leaf
The flowers appear in May, soon after the leaves. Polygamo-monœ cious, greenish. Of three
kinds—staminate, pistillate, perfect; born on slender drooping pedicels. The calyx is light
yellow green, five-lobed, divided nearly to the base; lobes linear, acute, more or less cut
at the apex, often tipped with hairs, imbricate in bud.
* Corolla: Wanting.
There are five stamens, which are hypogynous; the filaments are white, smooth, slightly
flattened and gradually narrowed from base to apex; in the bud incurved, bringing the
anthers face to face, as flower opens they abruptly straighten; anthers extrorse, oblong,
two-celled; cells opening longitudinally.
* Pistil: ovary superior, one-celled; style two-lobed; ovules solitary.
* Fruit: Fleshy drupe, oblong, one-half to three-fourths of an inch long, tipped with
remnants of style, dark purple. Borne on a slender stem; ripens in September and October.
Remains on branches during winter.[3]
[edit] Distribution and habitat
The Common Hackberry is native to North America from southern Ontario and Quebec, through
parts of New England, south to North Carolina-(Appalachia), west to northern Oklahoma, and
north to South Dakota. Hackberry's range overlaps with the sugarberry (Celtis laevigata),
making it difficult to establish the exact range of either species in the South. Although
there is little actual overlap, in the western part of its range the Common Hackberry is
sometimes confused with the smaller Netleaf Hackberry (Celtis reticulata), which has a
similar bark. Hackberry grows in many different habitats, although it prefers bottomlands
and soils high in limestone. Its shade tolerance is greatly dependent on conditions. In
favorable conditions its seedlings will persist under a closed canopy, but in less
favorable conditions it can be considered shade intolerant.
[edit] Ecology
Fruits
Hackberry is highly susceptible to fire damage. The leaves are eaten by four gall-producing
insects of the Pachypsylla genus, which do not cause serious damage to the tree. A number
of insects and fungi cause rapid decay of dead branches or roots of the tree.
The small berries, hackberries, are eaten by a number of birds and mammals. Most seeds are
dispersed by animals, but some seeds are also dispersed by water.
[edit] Cultivation and uses
The wood is light yellow; heavy, soft, coarse-grained, not strong. Used for fencing and
cheap furniture. Sp. gr., 0.7287; weight of cu. ft., 45.41 lb (20.60 kg).
Hackberry's wood is soft and rots easily, making the wood undesirable commercially,
although it is occasionally used for furniture or other uses. The berries, although edible,
are small and out of reach, and are seldom eaten by humans. Hackberry is only occasionally
used as a street or landscape tree, although its tolerance for urban conditions make it
well suited to this role. Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia, is known for the extensive
use of Hackberry as a street tree.
Black Walnut
The Eastern Black walnut (Juglans nigra) is a species of flowering tree in the hickory
family, Juglandaceae, that is native to eastern North America. It grows mostly in riparian
zones, from southern Ontario, west to southeast South Dakota, south to Georgia, northern
Florida and southwest to central Texas. Isolated wild trees in the Upper Ottawa Valley may
be an isolated native population or may have derived from planted trees.
The black walnut is a large deciduous tree attaining heights of 30–40 metres (98–130 ft).
Under forest competition it develops a tall, clear bole; the open-grown form has a short
bole and broad crown. The bark is grey-black and deeply furrowed. The pith of the twigs
contains air spaces. The leaves are alternate, 30–60 cm long, odd-pinnate with 15–23
leaflets, the largest leaflets located in the center, 7–10 cm long and 2–3 cm broad. The
male flowers are in drooping catkins 8–10 cm long, the female flowers terminal, in clusters
of two to five, ripening during the autumn into a fruit (nut) with a brownish-green,
semi-fleshy husk and a brown corrugated nut. The whole fruit, including the husk, falls in
October; the seed is relatively small and very hard. The tree tends to crop more heavily in
alternate years.
While its primary native region is the midwest and east central United States, the black
walnut was introduced into Europe in 1629. It is cultivated there and in North America as a
forest tree for its high quality wood. Nuts are produced more by open-grown trees. Black
walnut is more resistant to frost than the Persian walnut (also known as the English
walnut), but thrives best in the warmer regions of fertile, lowland soils with a high water
table. It is a light-demanding species. The wood is used to make furniture, flooring, and
rifle stocks, and oil is pressed from the seeds. Nuts are harvested by hand from wild
trees. About 65% of the annual wild harvest comes from the U.S. state of Missouri and the
largest processing plant is in Stockton, Missouri.[citation needed] The black walnut
nutmeats are used as an ingredient in food while the hard black walnut shell is used
commercially in abrasive cleaning, cosmetics, and oil well drilling and water filtration.
Where the range of J. nigra overlaps that of the Texas black walnut J. microcarpa, the two
species sometimes interbreed, producing populations with characteristics intermediate
between the two species.[1]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Uses
o 1.1 Food
+ 1.1.1 Nut processing by hand
o 1.2 Dye
o 1.3 Wood
* 2 Pests
* 3 Toxicity
* 4 Big tree
* 5 Gallery
* 6 Notes
* 7 References
* 8 External links
[edit] Uses
Walnut, Black (J. nigra)
Black Walnut Juglans nigra Nut 2400px.jpg
Black walnut
Nutritional value per serving
Serving size 100 grams
Energy 618 kJ (148 kcal)
Carbohydrates 9.91 g
Starch 0.24 g
Sugars 1.10 g
Lactose 0 g
Dietary fiber 6.8 g
Fat 59.00 g
saturated 3.368 g
monounsaturated 15.004 g
polyunsaturated 35.077 g
omega-3 fat 2.006 g
omega-6 fat 33.072 g
Protein 24.06 g
Water 4.56 g
Alcohol 0 g
Caffeine 0 g
Vitamin A equiv. 2 μg (0%)
Vitamin A 40 IU
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.057 mg (4%)
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.130 mg (9%)
Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.470 mg (3%)
Pantothenic acid (B5) 1.660 mg (33%)
Vitamin B6 0.583 mg (45%)
Folate (Vit. B9) 31 μg (8%)
Vitamin B12 0 μg (0%)
Vitamin C 1.7 mg (3%)
Vitamin D 0 μg (0%)
Vitamin D 0 IU (0%)
Vitamin E 1.80 mg (12%)
Vitamin K 2.7 μg (3%)
Calcium 61 mg (6%)
Iron 3.12 mg (25%)
Magnesium 201 mg (54%)
Manganese 3.896 mg (195%)
Phosphorus 513 mg (73%)
Potassium 523 mg (11%)
Sodium 2 mg (0%)
Zinc 3.37 mg (34%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.
Source: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/cgi-bin/list_nut_edit.pl
In addition to its use as a shade tree, J. nigra can be used for the fruits it produces,
and for lumber.
[edit] Food
Black walnut nuts are shelled commercially in the United States. The nutmeats provide a
robust, distinctive, natural flavor and crunch as a food ingredient. Popular uses include
ice cream, bakery goods and confections. Consumers include black walnuts in traditional
treats, such as cakes, cookies, fudge, and pies during the fall holiday season. The nut’s
strong nutritional profile leads to uses in other foods such as salads, fish, pork,
chicken, vegetables and pasta dishes.
Nutritionally similar to the milder-tasting English walnut, the black walnut kernel is high
in unsaturated fat and protein. An analysis of nut oil from five named J. nigra cultivars
(Ogden, Sparrow, Baugh, Carter and Thomas) showed that the most prevalent fatty acid in J.
nigra oil is linoleic acid (27.80–33.34 g/100g dry kernel), followed (in the same units) by
oleic acid (14.52–24.40), linolenic acid (1.61–3.23), palmitic acid (1.61–2.15), and
stearic acid (1.07–1.69).[2] The oil from the cultivar Carter had the highest mol percent
of linoleate (61.6), linolenate (5.97%), and palmitate (3.98%); the oil from the cultivar
Baugh had the highest mol percent of oleate (42.7%); the oil from the cultivar Ogden has
the highest mol percent of stearate (2.98%).
Tapped in spring, the tree yields a sweet sap that can be drunk or concentrated into syrup
or sugar.[1]
[edit] Nut processing by hand
A woman's hands after removing the husks from 500 black walnuts
The extraction of the kernel from the fruit of the black walnut is difficult. The thick
hard shell is tightly bound by tall ridges to a thick husk. The husk is best removed when
green as the nuts taste better if it is removed then.[citation needed] Rolling the nut
underfoot on a hard surface such as a driveway is a common method; commercial huskers use a
car tire rotating against a metal mesh. Some take a thick plywood board and drill a nut
sized hole in it (from one to two inches in diameter) and smash the nut through using a
hammer. The nut goes through and the husk remains behind.
While the flavor of the Juglans nigra kernel is prized, the difficulty in preparing it may
account for the wider popularity and availability of the Persian walnut.
[edit] Dye
Black walnut drupes contain juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), plumbagin (yellow
quinone pigments), and tannin.[3] The brownish-black dye was used by early settlers to dye
hair.[4] Extracts of the outer soft part of the drupe are still used as a natural dye for
handicrafts.[5] The tannins present in walnuts act as a mordant aiding in the dyeing
process;[6][7] usable as a dark ink or wood stain.[8]
[edit] Wood
Black walnut is highly prized for its dark-colored true heartwood. It is heavy and strong,
yet easily split and worked. Walnut wood has historically been used for gunstocks,
furniture, flooring, paddles, coffins, and a variety of other woodworking products. Due to
its value, forestry officials often are called on to track down walnut poachers; in 2004,
DNA testing was used to solve one such poaching case, involving a 55 foot (16m) tree worth
US $2500. Black walnut has a density per cubic meter of 660kg (41.2 lb/cubic foot),[9]
which makes it lighter than oak.
[edit] Pests
Maggots (larvae of Rhagoletis completa and Rhagoletis suavis) in the husk are common,
though more a nuisance than a serious problem for amateurs, who may simply remove the
affected husk as soon as infestation is noticed. The maggots develop entirely within the
husk and thus the quality of the nutmeat is not affected.[10] However, infestations of
Persian walnuts are undesirable because they make the husk difficult to remove and are
unsightly. Maggots can be serious for commercial walnut growers, who tend to use chemical
treatments to prevent damage to the crop.[11] Some organic controls also exist, such as
removing and disposing of infested nuts.[12]
The walnut curculio (Conotrachelus retentus) grows to 5 mm long as an adult. The adult
sucks plant juices through a snout. The eggs are laid in fruits in the spring and summer.
Many nuts are lost due to damage from the larvae, which burrow through the nut shell.[13]
The codling moth (Cydia pomonella) larva eats walnut kernels, as well as apple and pear
seeds.[14]
A disease complex known as Thousand cankers disease has been threatening black walnut in
several western states.[15] This disease has recently been discovered in Tennessee and
could potentially have devastating effects on the species in the eastern United States.[16]
[edit] Toxicity
The roots, nut husks, and leaves secrete a substance into the soil called juglone that is a
respiratory inhibitor to some plants. A number of other plants (most notably white birch)
are also poisoned by juglone, and should not be planted in close proximity to a black
walnut. Horses are susceptible to laminitis from exposure to black walnut wood in bedding.[
Borage,
(Borago officinalis), also known as a starflower, is an annual herb originating in
Syria,[1] but naturalized throughout the Mediterranean region, as well as Asia Minor,
Europe, North Africa, and South America. It grows to a height of 60–100 cm (2.0–3.3 ft),
and is bristly or hairy all over the stems and leaves; the leaves are alternate, simple,
and 5–15 cm (2.0–5.9 in) long. The flowers are complete, perfect with five narrow,
triangular-pointed petals. Flowers are most often blue in color, although pink flowers are
sometimes observed. White flowered types are also cultivated. The flowers arise along
scorpiod cymes to form large floral displays with multiple flowers blooming simultaneously,
suggesting that borage has a high degree of geitonogamy. It has an indeterminate growth
habit which may lead to prolific spreading. In milder climates, borage will bloom
continuously for most of the year.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Characteristics and uses
* 2 Companion plant
* 3 See also
* 4 References
[edit] Characteristics and uses
A white flower cultivar
Traditionally borage was cultivated for culinary and medicinal uses, although today
commercial cultivation is mainly as an oilseed. The seed oil is desired as source of
gamma-linolenic acid (GLA, 18:3, cis 6,9,12-octadecatrienoic acid), for which borage is the
highest known plant-based source (17-28%).[2] The seed oil content is between 26-38% and in
addition to GLA contains the fatty acids palmitic acid (10-11%), stearic acid (3.5-4.5%),
oleic acid (16-20%), linoleic acid (35-38%), eicosenoic acid (3.5-5.5%), erucic acid
(1.5-3.5%), and nervonic acid (1.5%). The oil is often marketed as "starflower oil" or
"borage oil" for uses as a GLA supplement, although healthy adults will typically produce
ample GLA through dietary linoleic acid.
Borage production does include use as either a fresh vegetable or a dried herb. As a fresh
vegetable, borage, with a cucumber like taste, is often used in salads or as a garnish.[3]
The flower, which contains the non-toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloid thesinine,[citation needed]
has a sweet honey-like taste and as one of the few truly blue-colored edible
things,[citation needed] is often used to decorate dessert.[3] It is notable that the
leaves have been found to contain small amounts (10 ppm of dried herb) of the liver-toxic
pyrrolizidine alkaloids: intermedine, lycopsamine, amabiline and supinine.[citation needed]
Vegetable use of borage is common in Germany, in the Spanish regions of Aragón and Navarra,
in the Greek island of Crete and in the Italian northern region Liguria. Although often
used in soups, one of the better known German borage recipes is the Green Sauce (Grüne
Soße) made in Frankfurt. In Italian Liguria, borage is commonly used as filling of the
traditional pasta ravioli and pansoti. The leaves and flowers were originally used in Pimms
before it was replaced by mint. It is used to flavour pickled gherkins in Poland.[citation
needed]
Naturopathic practitioners use borage for regulation of metabolism and the hormonal system,
and consider it to be a good remedy for PMS and menopause symptoms, such as the hot
flash.[citation needed] Borage is sometimes indicated to alleviate and heal colds,
bronchitis, and respiratory infections, and in general for its anti-inflammatory and
balsamic properties.[citation needed] The flowers can be prepared in infusion to take
advantage of its medicinal properties. The oleic and palmitic acid of borage may also
confer a hypocholesterolemic effect.[citation needed]
Borage is also traditionally used as a garnish in the Pimms Cup cocktail,[3] but is often
replaced by cucumber if not available.[citation needed]
[edit] Companion plant
Borage is used in companion planting.[4] It is said to protect or nurse legumes, spinach,
brassicas, and even strawberries.[5] It is also said to be a good companion plant to
tomatoes because it confuses the search image of the mother moths of tomato hornworms or
manduca looking for a place to lay their eggs.[6] Claims that it improves tomato growth [7]
and makes them taste better [8] remain unsubstantiated.
Honeysuckle
Honeysuckles (Lonicera, pronounced /lɒˈnɪsərə/;[1] syn. Caprifolium Mill.) are arching
shrubs or twining vines in the family Caprifoliaceae, native to the Northern Hemisphere.
There are about 180 species of honeysuckle, 100 of which occur in China; Europe and North
America have only about 20 native species each. Widely known species include Lonicera
periclymenum (European Honeysuckle or Woodbine), Lonicera japonica (Japanese Honeysuckle,
White Honeysuckle, or Chinese Honeysuckle) and Lonicera sempervirens (Coral Honeysuckle,
Trumpet Honeysuckle, or Woodbine Honeysuckle). Hummingbirds are attracted to these plants.
The leaves are opposite, simple oval, 1–10 cm long; most are deciduous but some are
evergreen. Many of the species have sweetly-scented, bell-shaped flowers that produce a
sweet, edible nectar. Breaking of the Honeysuckle's stem will release this powerful sweet
odor. The fruit is a red, blue or black berry containing several seeds; in most species the
berries are mildly poisonous, but a few (notably Lonicera caerulea) have edible berries.
The plant is eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species - see list of Lepidoptera that
feed on honeysuckles.
The name Lonicera stems from Adam Lonicer, a Renaissance botanist.
Nasturtiums
Nasturtium (pronounced /næˈstɜrʃⁱəm/)[1] literally "nose-twister" or "nose-tweaker"), as a
common name, refers to a genus of roughly 80 species of annual and perennial herbaceous
flowering plants in the genus Tropaeolum (pronounced /trɵˈpiː.ələm/,[2] "trophy"), one of
three genera in the family Tropaeolaceae. It should not be confused with the Watercresses
of the genus Nasturtium, of the Mustard family. The genus Tropaeolum, native to South and
Central America, includes several very popular garden plants, the most commonly grown being
T. majus, T. peregrinum and T. speciosum. The hardiest species is T. polyphyllum from
Chile, the perennial roots of which can survive underground when air temperatures drop as
low as -15°C (5°F).
They have showy, often intensely bright flowers (the intense color may pose problems in
macrophotography)[citation needed], and rounded, peltate (shield-shaped) leaves with the
petiole in the center. The flowers have five petals (sometimes more), a three-carpelled
ovary, and a funnel-shaped nectar tube in the back.
Tropaeolum species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species
including Dot Moth and Garden Carpet. A very common "pest" found on Nasturtium in
particular is the caterpillar of the Large White (Cabbage White) Butterfly.
The Nasturtiums receive their name from the fact that they produce an oil that is similar
to that produced by Watercress (Nasturtium officinale), from the family Brassicaceae.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Cultivation and uses
* 2 Taxonomy
* 3 Species
* 4 References
* 5 External links
[edit] Cultivation and uses
In cultivation, most varieties of nasturtiums prefer to be grown in direct or indirect
sunlight, with a few preferring partial shade.
The most common use of the nasturtium plant in cultivation is as an ornamental flower. It
grows easily and prolifically, and is a self-seeding annual.
The flowers and leaves of the nasturtium plant.
All parts of the plant are edible. The flower has most often been consumed, making for an
especially ornamental salad ingredient; it has a slightly peppery taste reminiscent of
watercress, and is also used in stir fry. The unripe seed pods can be harvested and pickled
with hot vinegar, to produce a condiment and garnish, sometimes used in place of capers,
although the taste is strongly peppery. The mashua (T. tuberosum) produces an edible
underground tuber that is a major food source in parts of the Andes.
Nasturtiums are also considered widely useful companion plants. They repel a great many
cucurbit pests, like squash bugs, cucumber beetles, and several caterpillars. They have a
similar range of benefits for brassica plants, especially broccoli and cauliflower. They
also attract black fly aphids, and are sometimes planted in the hope of saving crops
susceptible to them (as a trap crop). They may also attract beneficial predatory insects.
[edit] Taxonomy
Tropaeolum was previously placed in the family Tropaeolaceae along with two other genera,
Magallan and Tropaeastrum. In 2000, a molecular study found Tropaeolum to be paraphyletic
with respect to the other two genera, so they were transferred into Tropaeolum.
Tropaeolaceae was thus rendered monogeneric.[
Pineapple Guave
Acca sellowiana is a species of flowering plant in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae, that is
native to the highlands of southern Brazil, Colombia, Uruguay, and northern Argentina.[1]
Common names include Feijoa (pronounced /feɪˈʒoʊ.ə/, /feɪˈdʒoʊ.ə/,[2] or /feɪˈhoʊ.ə/[3])
Pineapple Guava and Guavasteen. It is an evergreen shrub or small tree, 1–7 metres (3.3–23
ft) in height. It is widely cultivated as a garden plant and fruiting tree and is a
perennial. The German botanist Otto Karl Berg named Feijoa after João da Silva Feijó, a
Portuguese botanist born in the colony of Brazil.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Fruit
* 2 Growing conditions
* 3 Seasonality
* 4 Consumption and uses
* 5 Sale and shipping
* 6 Cultivation
* 7 References
* 8 External links
[edit] Fruit
The fruit, maturing in autumn, is green, ellipsoid, and about the size of a chicken egg. It
has a sweet, aromatic flavor. The flesh is juicy and is divided into a clear gelatinous
seed pulp and a firmer, slightly gritty, opaque flesh nearer the skin. The fruit drops when
ripe and at its fullest flavor, but may be picked from the tree prior to the drop to
prevent bruising.
The fruit pulp resembles the closely related guava, having a gritty texture. The Feijoa
pulp is used in some natural cosmetic products as an exfoliant. Feijoa fruit has a
distinctive smell. The aroma is due to the ester methyl benzoate and related compounds that
exist in the fruit.
[edit] Growing conditions
Whole and cut ripe Feijoas
It is a warm-temperate to subtropical plant that also will grow in the tropics, but
requires some winter chilling to fruit and the plant is frost-tolerant.
In the northern hemisphere this species has been cultivated as far north as western
Scotland, but under such conditions it does not fruit every year, as winter temperatures
below approximately −9 °C (16 °F) kill the flower buds.
[edit] Seasonality
Large quantities of the fruit are grown in New Zealand, where it is a popular garden tree
and the fruit commonly is available in season. The New Zealand season runs from March to
June.
Harder varieties are grown for years in Russian region of Buriatia (city Ulan-Ude), with
winters up to -40 C.
[edit] Consumption and uses
The fruit usually is eaten by cutting it in half, then scooping out the pulp with a
spoon.[4] The fruit has a juicy sweet seed pulp and slightly gritty flesh nearer the skin.
The flavour is aromatic and sweet. If the utensils needed to eat it this way are not
available, the Feijoa may be torn or bitten in half, and the contents squeezed out and
consumed. An alternative method is to bite the end off and then tear the fruit in half
length ways, exposing a larger surface with less curvature and using one's teeth to scrape
the pulp out closer to the skin. This method results in less waste of the fruit.
A Feijoa may be used as an interesting addition to a fruit smoothie, and may be used to
make Feijoa wine or cider and feijoa infused vodka. It also is possible to buy Feijoa
yogurt, fruit drinks, jam, ice-cream, and such in New Zealand. The Feijoa also may be
cooked and used in dishes where one would use stewed fruit. It is a popular ingredient in
chutney.
Cut over-mature fruit showing browning
Fruit maturity is not always apparent visually as the fruits remain the same shade of green
until they are over-mature or rotting. One usually may sense ripeness, however, by giving
the fruit a soft squeeze; a ripe Feijoa will give somewhat like a just-ripe banana.
Generally, the fruit is at its optimum ripeness the day it drops from the tree. While still
hanging it may well prove bitter, however, once fallen, fruit very quickly becomes
over-ripe, so a daily collection of fallen fruit is advisable during the season.
When the fruits are immature the seed pulp is white and opaque. It becomes clear and
gelatinous when ripe. Fruits are at their optimum maturity when the seed pulp has turned
into a clear jelly with no hint of browning. Once the seed pulp and surrounding flesh start
to brown, the fruit is over-mature, but still may be eaten. Over-mature but not rotten
fruits may be used to make a delicious juice very popular in places such as the Colombian
Highlands.[citation needed]
The pink to white flower petals have a delightful flavor, being crisp, moist, and fleshy.
They regularly are consumed by birds.
[edit] Sale and shipping
Ripe fruit is very prone to bruising; maintaining the fruit in good condition for any
length of time is not easy. This, along with the short period of optimum ripeness and full
favor, probably explains why Feijoas, although delicious, frequently are not exported, and
where grown commercially, often only are sold close to the source of the crop.
Because of the relatively short shelf-life, store keepers need to be careful to replace
older Feijoas regularly to ensure high quality. In some countries, Feijoas also may be
purchased at roadside stalls, often at a lower price.
Feijoas may be cool-stored for approximately a month and still have a few days of shelf
life at optimum eating maturity. They also may be frozen for up to one year without a loss
in quality.
[edit] Cultivation
Feijoa flower
Some grafted cultivars of Feijoa are self-fertile. Most are not, and require a pollinator.
Seedlings may or may not be of usable quality, and may or may not be self fertile.
In New Zealand, the pollinators of this plant are bees, bumblebees, or medium-sized birds.
The latter include such as the Silvereye in the cooler parts of the South Island, the
blackbird, or the Indian myna farther north, which feed on the sweet, fleshy petals of the
Feijoa flower.
In California, robins, mockingbirds, hummingbirds, starlings, scrub jays, towhees, and grey
squirrels feast on the petals and are presumed to be assisting with pollination.[citation
needed] Honeybees also visit the flowers.
In some areas where the species has been introduced, however, the trees have been
unproductive due to lack of pollinators. The shrub has very few insect pests.
Yucca
Yucca is a genus of perennial shrubs and trees in the agave family, Agavaceae. Its 40-50
species are notable for their rosettes of evergreen, tough, sword-shaped leaves and large
terminal panicles of white or whitish flowers. They are native to the hot and dry (arid)
parts of North America, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. Early reports of
the species were confused with the cassava (Manihot esculenta).[2] Consequently, Linnaeus
mistakenly derived the generic name from the Carib word for the latter, yuca.[3]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Distribution
* 2 Ecology
* 3 Uses
* 4 Cultivation
* 5 Symbolism
* 6 Species
* 7 Taxonomic arrangement
* 8 Cultivars
* 9 Gallery
* 10 References
* 11 External links
[edit] Distribution
Distribution of the capsular fruited species in southwest, midwest USA, Mexico's Baja
California and Canada. Overview
The natural distribution range of the genus Yucca (49 species and 24 subspecies) covers a
vast area of North and Central America. From Baja California in the west, northwards into
the southwestern United States, through the drier central states as far north as Alberta in
Canada (Yucca glauca ssp. albertana), and moving east along the Gulf of Mexico, and then
north again, through the Atlantic coastal and inland neighbouring states. To the south, the
genus is represented throughout Mexico and extends into Guatemala (Yucca guatemalensis).
Yuccas have adapted to an equally vast range of climatic and ecological conditions. They
are to be found in rocky deserts and badlands, in prairies and grassland, in mountainous
regions, in light woodland, in coastal sands (Yucca filamentosa), and even in subtropical
and semi-temperate zones, although these are nearly always arid to semi-arid.
[edit] Ecology
Yuccas have a very specialized, mutualistic pollination system, being pollinated by yucca
moths (family Prodoxidae); the insect purposefully transfers the pollen from the stamens of
one plant to the stigma of another, and at the same time lays an egg in the flower; the
moth larva then feeds on some of the developing seeds, always leaving enough seed to
perpetuate the species. Yucca species are the host plants for the caterpillars of the Yucca
Giant-Skipper (Megathymus yuccae),[4] Ursine Giant-Skipper (Megathymus ursus),[5] and
Strecker's Giant-Skipper (Megathymus streckeri).[6]
[edit] Uses
Yuccas are widely grown as ornamental plants in gardens. Many species of yucca also bear
edible parts, including fruits, seeds, flowers, flowering stems,[7] and more rarely roots.
References to yucca root as food often stem from confusion with the similarly spelled but
botanically unrelated yuca, also called cassava (Manihot esculenta). Roots of soaptree
yucca (Yucca elata) are high in saponins and are used as a shampoo in Native American
rituals. Dried yucca leaves and trunk fibers have a low ignition temperature, making the
plant desirable for use in starting fires via friction.[8]
[edit] Cultivation
Yucca are widely planted in the western US as a landscape plant. Most species are generally
heat and cold tolerant, requiring little care and low water. They offer a dramatic accent
to a landscape design.
Joshua trees (Yucca brevifolia) are protected by law in some states and should not be wild
collected without permit. As a landscape plant, they can be killed by excessive water
during their summer dormant phase. For these two reasons they are avoided by landscape
contractors.
GOOSEBERRY
The gooseberry (pronounced /ˈɡʊzbəri/;[1] Ribes uva-crispa, syn. R. grossularia) is a
species of Ribes, native to Europe, northwestern Africa and southwestern Asia. It is one of
several similar species in the subgenus Grossularia; for the other related species (e.g.,
North American Gooseberry Ribes hirtellum), see the genus page Ribes.
Although usually placed as a subgenus within Ribes, a few taxonomists treat Grossularia as
a separate genus, although hybrids between gooseberry and blackcurrant (e.g., the
Jostaberry) are possible. The subgenus Grossularia differs somewhat from currants, chiefly
in their spiny stems, and in that their flowers grow one to three together on short stems,
not in racemes.
Gooseberry bushes produce an edible fruit and are grown on both a commercial and domestic
basis.
Growth habit and physical characteristics
The gooseberry is a straggling bush growing to 1–3 metres (3–10 feet) tall, the branches
being thickly set with sharp spines, standing out singly or in diverging tufts of two or
three from the bases of the short spurs or lateral leaf shoots. The bell-shaped flowers are
produced, singly or in pairs, from the groups of rounded, deeply-crenated 3 or 5 lobed
leaves. The fruit of wild gooseberries is smaller than in the cultivated varieties, but is
often of good flavour; it is generally hairy, but in one variety smooth, constituting the
R. uva-crispa of writers; berries' colour is usually green, but there are red variants and
occasionally deep purple berries occur.
[edit] Range
The gooseberry is indigenous in Europe and western Asia, growing naturally in alpine
thickets and rocky woods in the lower country, from France eastward, well into the
Himalayas and peninsular India.
Currant and gooseberry output in 2005
In Britain, gooseberry bushes are often found in copses and hedgerows and about old ruins,
but the gooseberry has been cultivated for so long that it is difficult to distinguish wild
bushes from feral ones, or where the gooseberry fits into the native flora of the island.
Common as it is now on some of the lower slopes of the Alps of Piedmont and Savoy, it is
uncertain whether the Romans were acquainted with the gooseberry, though it may possibly be
alluded to in a vague passage of Pliny the Elder's Natural History; the hot summers of
Italy, in ancient times as at present, would be unfavourable to its cultivation. Although
gooseberries are now abundant in Germany and France, it does not appear to have been much
grown there in the Middle Ages, though the wild fruit was held in some esteem medicinally
for the cooling properties of its acid juice in fevers; while the old English name,
Fea-berry, still surviving in some provincial dialects, indicates that it was similarly
valued in Britain, where it was planted in gardens at a comparatively early period.
William Turner describes the gooseberry in his Herball, written about the middle of the
16th century, and a few years later it is mentioned in one of Thomas Tusser's quaint rhymes
as an ordinary object of garden culture. Improved varieties were probably first raised by
the skilful gardeners of Holland, whose name for the fruit, Kruisbezie, may have been
easily corrupted into the present English vernacular word. Towards the end of the 18th
century the gooseberry became a favourite object of cottage-horticulture, especially in
Lancashire, where the working cotton-spinners have raised numerous varieties from seed,
their efforts having been chiefly directed to increasing the size of the fruit.
Red gooseberries
[edit] Climate
Of the many hundred varieties enumerated in recent horticultural works, few perhaps equal
in flavour some of the older denizens of the fruit-garden, such as the old rough red and
hairy amber. The climate of the British Isles seems peculiarly adapted to bring the
gooseberry to perfection,[citation needed] and it may be grown successfully even in the
most northern parts of Scotland where it is commonly known as a "grozet"; indeed, the
flavour of the fruit is said to improve with increasing latitude. In Norway (where it's
named "stikkelsbær" — or "prickly berry"), the bush flourishes in gardens on the west coast
nearly up to the Arctic circle, and it is found wild as far north as 63°. The dry summers
of the French and German plains are less suited to it, though it is grown in some hilly
districts with tolerable success. The gooseberry in the south of England will grow well in
cool situations, and may be sometimes seen in gardens near London flourishing under the
partial shade of apple trees; but in the north it needs full exposure to the sun to bring
the fruit to perfection. It will succeed in almost any soil, but prefers a rich loam or
black alluvium, and, though naturally a plant of rather dry places, will do well in moist
land, if drained.
It is also widely found in villages throughout the former Czechoslovakia.
Sectioned gooseberries showing seeds
A blossom of gooseberry
[edit] Cultivation
The easiest method of propagating gooseberries is by cuttings rather than raising from
seed;cuttings planted in the autumn will take root quickly and can begin to bear fruit
within a few years.
Vigorous pruning may be necessary; fruit is produced on lateral spurs and the previous
year's shoots, so the 19th-century custom was to trim side branches in the winter, and
perhaps trim leading shoots at that time or remove their tips in the summer.
Large berries can be produced by heavy composting, especially if the majority of the fruit
is picked off while small to allow room for a few berries to continue to grow. Grafting of
gooseberry vines onto ornamental golden currants (Ribes aurum) or other Ribes species can
be helpful for this purpose. Some 19th- and early 20th-century cultivators produced single
gooseberries near to two ounces in weight, but, as with many varieties of fruit, larger
sizes of gooseberry proved to have weaker flavor.
Ribes uva-crispa[2]
[edit] Pests
Gooseberry bushes are vulnerable to magpie moth (Abraxas grossulariata) caterpillars. In
cultivation, the best method for removing them is to remove the larvae by hand soon after
they hatch; its eggs are laid on fallen gooseberry leaves.
Other potential threats are V-moth (Macaria wauaria) and Gooseberry sawfly (Nematus
ribesii). Nematus reibesii grubs will bury themselves in the ground to pupate; on hatching
into adult form, they lay their eggs, which soon hatch into larvae, on the underside of
gooseberry leaves. 19th-century insecticides against these included tar water, weak
solutions of carbolic acid, and powdered hellebore, which worked against magpie moths and
V-moths as well as gooseberry sawflies. (Foxglove and tobacco infusions were also sometimes
used.) Careful removal of fallen leaves and tilling of the ground around the plant will
also destroy most eggs and chrysalises of these insects.
Potassium sulfide was known to be an effective treatment for blights and other parasitic
growths, such as American gooseberry mildew.
Note that like most Ribes, the gooseberry is a potential host for white pine blister rust,
which can cause serious damage to white pines; thus, gooseberry cultivation is illegal in
some areas of the U.S.
[edit] Culinary uses
Gooseberries for sale in Hainan, China
Gooseberries are best known for their use in desserts such as pies, fools and crumbles.
Gooseberries are commonly preserved by drying, storing in sugar syrup, or as jam or pickle.
Gooseberries are used to flavoured drinks such as soda, water or even milk, and are used to
make Fruit wine. In India some use gooseberry for acidity problem and stomach ache.
[edit] Etymology
The "goose" in "gooseberry" has usually been seen as a corruption of either the Dutch word
Kruisbezie or the allied German Krausbeere, or of the earlier forms of the French
groseille. Alternatively the word has been connected to the Middle High German krus (curl,
crisped), in Latin as grossularia. However, the Oxford English Dictionary takes the obvious
derivation from goose and berry as probable because "the grounds on which plants and fruits
have received names associating them with animals are so often inexplicable that the
inappropriateness in the meaning does not necessarily give good grounds for believing that
the word is an etymological corruption.
JUJUBE
Ziziphus zizyphus (from Greek ζίζυφον, zizyfon[1]), commonly called jujube, red date, or
Chinese date, is a species of Ziziphus in the buckthorn family Rhamnaceae, used primarily
for its fruits. Common names in Arabic are nabq, dum, tsal, sadr, zufzuuf (in Morocco) and
sidr, the last of which also means Ziziphus lotus.[2] In Persian it is called anab or annab
, a name also used in Lebanon.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Distribution
* 2 Growth
* 3 Nomenclature
* 4 Cultivation and uses
o 4.1 Medicinal use
o 4.2 Culinary use
o 4.3 Other uses
o 4.4 Pests and diseases
* 5 References
* 6 Further reading
* 7 External links
[edit] Distribution
Its precise natural distribution is uncertain due to extensive cultivation, but is thought
to be in southern Asia, between Lebanon, Iran, Pakistan, northern India, Bangladesh, the
Korean peninsula, and southern and central China, and also southeastern Europe though more
likely introduced there.[3]
[edit] Growth
It is a small deciduous tree or shrub reaching a height of 5–10 m, usually with thorny
branches. The leaves are shiny-green, ovate-acute, 2–7-cm wide and 1–3-cm broad, with three
conspicuous veins at the base, and a finely toothed margin. The flowers are small, 5-mm
wide, with five inconspicuous yellowish-green petals. The fruit is an edible oval drupe
1.5–3-cm deep; when immature it is smooth-green, with the consistency and taste of an
apple, maturing brown to purplish-black and eventually wrinkled, looking like a small date.
There is a single hard stone similar to an olive stone.[3]
[edit] Nomenclature
The species has a curious nomenclatural history, due to a combination of botanical naming
regulations, and variations in spelling. It was first described scientifically by Carolus
Linnaeus as Rhamnus zizyphus, in Species Plantarum in 1753. Later, in 1768, Philip Miller
concluded it was sufficiently distinct from Rhamnus to merit separation into a new genus,
in which he named it Ziziphus jujube, using Linnaeus' species name for the genus but with a
probably accidental single letter spelling difference, 'i' for 'y'; for the species name he
used a different name, as tautonyms (repetition of exactly the same name in the genus and
species) are not permitted in botanical naming. However, because of Miller's slightly
different spelling, the combination correctly using the earliest species name (from
Linnaeus) with the new genus, Ziziphus zizyphus, is not a tautonym, and therefore permitted
as a botanical name; this combination was made by Hermann Karsten in 1882.[3][4]
[edit] Cultivation and uses
Jujube was domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BCE.[5] Over 400 cultivars have
been selected.
The tree tolerates a wide range of temperatures and rainfall, though it requires hot
summers and sufficient water for acceptable fruiting. Unlike most of the other species in
the genus, it tolerates fairly cold winters, surviving temperatures down to about −15°C.
This enables the jujube to grow in desert habitats, provided there is access to underground
water through the summer. Virtually no temperature seems to be too high in summertime.
[edit] Medicinal use
The fruits are used in Chinese and Korean traditional medicine, where they are believed to
alleviate stress.[citation needed] The jujube-based Australian drink 1-bil avoids making
specific stress-related claims, but does suggest drinking 1-bil "when you feel yourself
becoming distressed".[6]
Ziziphin, a compound in the leaves of the jujube, suppresses the ability to perceive sweet
taste in humans.[7] The fruit, being mucilaginous, is very soothing to the throat and
decoctions of jujube have often been used in pharmacy to treat sore throats.
Fresh jujube fruits.
[edit] Culinary use
Dried jujube fruits, which naturally turn red upon drying.
The freshly harvested as well as the candied dried fruits are often eaten as a snack, or
with tea. They are available in either red or black (called hóng zǎo or hēi zǎo,
respectively, in Chinese), the latter being smoked to enhance their flavor.[8] In China and
Korea, a sweetened tea syrup containing jujube fruits is available in glass jars,[9] and
canned jujube tea or jujube tea in the form of teabags is also available. Although not
widely available, jujube juice[10] and jujube vinegar[11] (called 枣醋 or 红枣醋 in Chinese) are
also produced; they are used for making pickles (কুলের আচার) in West Bengal and Bangladesh.
In China, a wine made from jujubes, called hong zao jiu (红枣酒) is also produced.[12] Jujubes
are sometimes preserved by storing in a jar filled with baijiu (Chinese liquor), which
allows them to be kept fresh for a long time, especially through the winter. Such jujubes
are called jiu zao (酒枣; literally "spirited jujube"). These fruits, often stoned, are also
a significant ingredient in a wide variety of Chinese delicacies. In Korea, jujubes are
called daechu (대추) and are used in teas and samgyetang. It is said to be helpful in aiding
the common cold.
In Lebanon, the fruit is eaten as snacks or alongside a dessert after a meal.
In Persian cuisine, the dried drupes are known as annab, while in neighboring Azerbaijan it
is commonly eaten as a snack, and are known as innab. In Pakistan, the fruit is eaten both
fresh and dried, and is known as ber (a generic term for berry).
In Tamil-speaking regions, the fruit is called ilanthai pazham (இலந்தை பழம்). In Kannada
this fruit is called "Yelchi Hannu" and in Telugu it is called "Regi pandu". Traditionally,
the fruits are dried in the sun and the hard nuts are removed. Then, it is pounded with
tamarind, red chillies, salt, and jaggery. Small dishes are made from this dough and again
dried in the sun, and are referred to as ilanthai vadai. In some parts of the Indian state
of Tamil Nadu, fresh whole ripe fruit is crushed with the above ingredients and dried under
the sun to make delicious cakes called ilanthai vadai.[13]
[edit] Other uses
The jujube's sweet smell is said to make teenagers fall in love, and as a result, in the
Himalaya and Karakoram regions, men take a stem of sweet-smelling jujube flowers with them
or put it on their hats to attract women.[citation needed]
In the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony, the jujube was often placed in the newlyweds'
bedroom as a good luck charm for fertility, along with peanuts, longan, and chestnuts,
punning on an invocation to "have an honored child soon".
In Bhutan, the leaves are used as a potpourri to help keep the houses of the inhabitants
smelling fresh and clean. It is also said to keep bugs and other insects out of the house
and free of infestation.
In Japan, the natsume has given its name to a style of tea caddy used in the Japanese tea
ceremony.
In Korea, the wood is used to make the body of the taepyeongso, a double-reed wind
instrument. The wood is also used to make Go bowls.
In Vietnam, the jujube fruit is eaten freshly picked from the tree as a snack. It is also
dried and used in desserts, such as sâm bổ lượng, a cold beverage that includes the dried
jujube, longan, fresh seaweed, barley, and lotus seeds.
A jujube honey is produced in the middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco.
[edit] Pests and diseases
Witch's brooms, prevalent in China and Korea, is the main disease affecting jujubes, though
plantings in North America currently are not affected by any pests or diseases.
RAISIN TREE
Hovenia dulcis Thunb.
Rhamnaceae
Common Names: Raisin Tree, Japanese Raisin Tree, Kenpo Nashi
Distant Affinity: Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba), Indian Jujube (Z. mauritiana).
Origin: The raisin tree is native to moist areas and mountains of China, although
cultivation spread long ago to Japan, Korea and India. The plant was introduced to the West
in about 1820.
Adaptation: The northern limits for winter survival and fruit ripening of the tree has not
been fully determined. It is cold-hardy to about -10° F, and fruits ripen in eastern North
America at least as far north as southern New York. There is a 28-year old specimen in the
Asian section of the Los Angeles County Arboretum and another specimen at nearby Huntington
Gardens. Raisin tree plants are not particularly suitable for container culture.
DESCRIPTION
Growth Habit: The raisin tree is deciduous and can grow to a height of 70 feet or more, but
cultivated specimens typically reach a height of about 30 feet with a singular trunk and a
rounded head. The lower branches frequently drop off leaving a fairly high crotch. Growth
rate is moderate, perhaps a foot or two per year, more when young and less when old. Raisin
trees are particularly handsome when planted in groups. The deeply fissured bark is
counterpointed by gently undulating branches and overlapping leaves
Foliage: The cordate, glossy green leaves are borne alternately. They are a large (up to
six inches in length), rather limp leaf which must be spread out to see its shape.
Flowers: Racemes of small self-fruitful flowers bloom in late spring. They are cream
colored and compensate for their small size by being clustered together in great masses.
Where summers are cool, bloom may be delayed even until the end of summer with the result
that fruit does not form or ripen.
Fruit: The edible "raisins" are not a fruit at all but a short, swollen mature flower stalk
or peduncle which supports the inedible seed pod. As the pod matures, the peduncle of stem
attaching it to the cluster swells, becomes knobby and turns a translucent reddish brown. A
pear-like flavor develops as the sugars increase, and the peduncle is ready to eat when it
falls to the ground. Although the edible portions are small, close to the size of a raisin,
the crop is copious. The brown pod which is actually the fruit is not used.
CULTURE
Location: Although native to partially shaded sites, full sun helps hasten flowering and
ripening. When placed in a southwest corner, the tree provides summer shade and allows
winter sun to pass through the bare limbs.
Soil: The raisin tree tolerates a wide range of soil conditions and thrives in sandy loam.
Irrigation: Although somewhat tolerant of drought, raisin trees do best with a regular
supply of moisture.
Fertilization: Little is known about the fertilization needs of the tree, but a light to
moderate fertilizing in mid-spring is probably useful.
Pruning: The tree tends to prune itself, dropping the lower branches as the tree grows.
Propagation: The seeds have an impermeable seed coat that severely inhibits germination.
Several methods have been employed to get around the problem. The seed coat can be
scarified by nicking it with a file, or soaking the seed in concentrated sulfuric acid for
two hours. Wash the seed thoroughly with water following the acid soak. The seed can also
be soaked in hot tap water (approximately 140° F) for three consecutive days. Others have
had some luck with freezing the seed. After treatment, the seed are planted in potting
soil, covered with clear plastic wrap and placed in bright light. Seeds should germinate
within a week to a month or more. Plants grown from seed usually bear fruit within 7 - 10
years, though bearing within 3 years is possible under good conditions
The plant can also be propagated by softwood cuttings taken in late summer, and by root
cuttings. Little work has been done in the area of grafting.
Pests and diseases: Raisin trees are apparently free of any significant pests and diseases.
Deer will probably browse the foliage, but the roots do not seem to be attractive to
gophers.
Harvest: Raisin tree peduncles do not become tasty until very late in the season. They are
excellent to eat out of hand or may be used in anything where raisins are normally used.
The bonus with raisin tree "raisins" is that they don't have to be dried. They are chopped
and added to fruitcake in Australia, and in China they are made into a beverage called
"tree honey" that is said to neutralize hangovers.
HARDY KIWIFRUIT
Actinidia arguta
Actinidiaceae
Common Names: Hardy Kiwi, Bower Vine, Dessert Kiwi, Cocktail Kiwi, Tara Vine, Yang-tao.
Related Species: Chinese Egg Gooseberry (Actinidia coriacea), Kiwifruit (A. deliciosa),
Super-hardy Kiwi (A. kolomikta), Red Kiwi (A. melanandra), Silver Vine (A. polygama),
Purple Kiwi (A. purpurea).
Origin: The hardy kiwi is native to northern China, Korea, Siberia and possibly Japan.
Adaptation: The plants need a long growing season (about 150 frost-free days) which will
not be hampered by late winter or early autumn freezes. When fully dormant, they can
withstand temperatures to about -25° F (and perhaps a bit lower.) However they must
acclimate to cold slowly and any sudden plunge in temperature may cause trunk splitting and
subsequent damage to the vine. All cultivars need a certain period of winter chilling and
their needs vary, dependent upon cultivar, however, the exact amounts needed has not yet
been established. To date, all cultivars that have been grown in both high chill and low
chill areas have produced equally well. Late winter freezing temperatures will kill any
exposed buds. The plants can be successfully grown in large containers.
DESCRIPTION
Growth Habit: In the forests where it is native, it is a climbing vine (liana), sometimes
climbing one hundred feet high into trees. In cultivation it is more well-behaved but must
be supported by a trellising system. The plant has a more delicate appearance than regular
kiwifruit.
Foliage: Leaves are elongated and generally 2 to 5 inches long and attached to the stem on
red petioles. They are usually serrated and far less leathery and fuzzy than regular
kiwifruit.
Flowers: The flowers are about one-half inch in diameter, white to cream colored, somewhat
fragrant, and produced as singlets to triplets in the leaf axiles. Flowering period extends
over several weeks from early May to June, depending on climatic conditions. Plants are
dioecious, having male and female flowers on separate plants, thus needing plants of both
sexes to produce crops. However, self-fruiting females are known to exist.
Fruit: The fruit are generally green, fuzzless, and the size of grapes. Cut open, they look
much like regular kiwifruit with its small black seeds, emerald green color, and typical
rayed pattern. Although typically green in both the skin and flesh, some cultivars have
various amount of red, either in the skin, flesh or both. Hardy kiwifruits are generally
sweeter than regular kiwifruit. Sugar levels vary, ranging from 14% (as with kiwifruit) up
to 29%.
Additional differences between cultivars can include perceived aroma of the fruit as well
as bitterness of the skin. Commercial cultivation has begun for this crop in many regions
of the United States due to the plants ability to grow in harsher climates than the
kiwifruit.
CULTURE
Location: The vines will tolerate some shade but prefer a sunny location where they can
ramble across some type of trellising system. They should have some protection from strong
winds
Site Preparation: Hardy kiwi plants need a substantial trellis, patio cover, or other
permanent place to grow upon. For the trellis system, either a single wire or T-bar system
can be installed. Both have a 4 inch by 4 inch redwood post of 8 feet. For the T-bar, a 2
inch by 6 inch crossarm about 4 feet long is bolted in place. Bury the post 2 feet into the
ground and cement in if at all possible. At each end of the system, a cemented deadman
should be in place. Run wires across the posts and anchor tautly to the deadman. When using
a patio cover, no extra trellising needs to be in place. Simply run the plant up a corner
post to the top and allow the plant to then form a spoke work of shoots which would
resemble an umbrella.
Soils: Hardy kiwi prefer well-drained, somewhat acid (pH 5 - 6.5) soils. Neutral soils are
acceptable but the leaves may show nitrogen deficiency when the soils become too basic. The
plants will not tolerate salty soils.
Irrigation: Hardy kiwi plants need large volumes of water during the entire growing season
but must also be in well-drained soils. Watering regularly in the heat of the summer is a
must. Never allow a plant to undergo drought stress. Symptoms of drought stress are
drooping leaves, browning of the leaves around the edges, and complete defoliation with
regrowth of new shoots when the stress is continuous. More plants probably die from water
related problems than any other reason.
Fertilization: Based on work done on the regular kiwifruit, hardy kiwi plants are heavy
nitrogen feeders which should be applied in abundance during the first half of the growing
season. Late season applications of nitrogen will enhance fruit size but are discouraged as
fruit then tends to store poorly. In basic soils, a citrus and avocado tree fertilizer
should be broadcast about the vine and watered in well in early March. Follow up the
initial fertilizing by supplemental additions to early summer. In other areas, use a high
nitrogen fertilizer which contains trace elements unless it is known that the particular
soil is deficient in another nutrient. Mulching with manures and/or straws is very
beneficial. However, do not put the mulch directly in contact with the vine as crown rot
will occur.
Pruning: For best fruit production, pruning in the winter is a must. All pruning techniques
are usually based on a "cane replacement" and differ only based on the trellising method
used. Kiwi vines need to be supported and this is usually done in one of three ways: single
wire, 3-5 wire on a T-bar system, or onto a patio cover. In all cases, one stem is trained
up to a wire at six feet and then allowed to grow along the wire. When growth ends in a
"pig-tailing" of the shoot, it is cut behind the entanglement and new a shoot allowed to
grow from a leaf base. After two years multiple shoots will now emerge from the lateral
mainline. During the growing season, each lateral cane will send out a new shoot about 1/3
of the way from its own starting point. The next winter, prune off the older cane at the
point that it connects with last summers new shoot. This process repeats itself every year.
Propagation: In areas where the regular kiwifruit will grow, scions of the hardy kiwi may
be grafted directly onto kiwifruit rootstock. Otherwise, one must either root their own
from hardwood or greenwood cuttings or buy established plants.
Pests and diseases: Plants are relatively free from problems, possibly due to their lack of
heavy planting into areas so that pests begin to take a liking to the leaves, trunk, or
roots. One odd problem is the fact that the trunks have a catnip-like aroma which cats love
to rub against. When plants are small, this can be a problem as they can rub off any new
shoots which emerge in the spring. Garden snails can also be a problem on younger
plantings. Other pests include deer that browse on the leaves and gophers that attack the
roots. Scale insects can damage if populations build up too extensively. Greenhouse thrips
may also damage the fruit.
Harvest: Ripening depends both on the cultivar grown and local climatic conditions. The
Cordifolia cultivar ripens first in early September while the Anna (Ananasnaja) may need to
wait until late October/early November before it sweetens to its best. Hardy kiwifruits
drop or come off easily when they are ripe. Usually they are picked at the mature-ripe
stage and allowed to ripen off of the vine as is done with kiwifruit.
CULTIVARS
Females
Many cultivars are known although no real attempt has been yet made to determine the best
for specific climates or regions. The following is a partial listing of cultivars:
* Ananasnaja (Anna)
* Cordifolia
* Dumbarton Oaks
* Geneva
* Issai (2 distinct self-fruitful cultivars from Japan)
* Ken's Red
* Michigan State
* 119-40B (Claimed self-fruitful)
* Red Princess
* Seedling selections by Professor Meader
* 74 Series
Males
Various males are known but no extensive work has been done to determine pollen count or
viability, flowering times, or vigorousness. If available, pollen from the regular
kiwifruit works well but the seed resulting is usually sterile.
PAWPAW
Pawpaw (Asimina) is a genus of small clustered trees with large leaves and fruit, native to
North America. The genus includes the largest edible fruit indigenous to the continent.
They are understory trees found in well drained deep fertile bottom land and hilly upland
habitat. Pawpaw is in the same family (Annonaceae) as the custard-apple, cherimoya,
sweetsop, ylang-ylang and soursop, and it is the only member of that family not confined to
the tropics.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Names
* 2 Description
* 3 Species
* 4 Cultivation and uses
* 5 History
* 6 References
* 7 External links
[edit] Names
The name, also spelled paw paw, paw-paw, and papaw, probably derives from the Spanish
papaya, perhaps because of the superficial similarity of their fruit. Pawpaw has numerous
other common names, often very local, such as prairie banana, Indiana (Hoosier) banana,
West Virginia banana, Kansas banana, Kentucky banana, Michigan banana, Missouri Banana, the
poor man's banana, Ozark banana, and Banango.
[edit] Description
Pawpaws are shrubs or small trees, reaching heights of 2–12 m tall. The northern,
cold-tolerant common pawpaw (Asimina triloba) is deciduous, while the southern species are
often evergreen.
The leaves are alternate, obovate, entire, 20–35 cm long and 10–15 cm broad.
The fetid flowers are produced singly or in clusters of up to eight together; they are
large, 4–6 cm across, perfect, with six sepals and petals (three large outer petals, three
smaller inner petals). The petal color varies from white to purple or red-brown.
The fruit is a large edible berry, 5–16 cm long and 3–7 cm broad, weighing from 20–500 g,
with numerous seeds; it is green when unripe, maturing to yellow or brown. It has a flavor
somewhat similar to both banana and mango, varying significantly by cultivar, and has more
protein than most fruits.
The shelf life of the ripe fruit is almost non-existent; it ripens to the point of
fermentation soon after it is picked. Methods of preservation include dehydration, making
it into jams or jellies, or pressure canning by using the numerical values for bananas. In
southern West Virginia pawpaws are made into a native version of banana nut cake or fruit
cake, and baked inside canning jars, the lids heat-sealed to keep the food for at least a
year.
* Bark: Light gray, sometimes blotched with lighter gray spots, sometimes covered with
small excrescences, divided by shallow fissures. Inner bark tough, fibrous. Branchlets
light brown, tinged with red, marked by shallow grooves.
* Wood: Pale, greenish yellow, sapwood lighter; light, soft, coarse-grained and spongy.
Sp. gr., 0.3969; weight of cu ft 24.74 lb.
* Winter buds: Small, brown, acuminate, hairy.
* Leaves: Alternate, simple, feather-veined, obovate-lanceolate, ten to twelve inches
long, four to five broad, wedge-shaped at base, entire, acute at apex; midrib and primary
veins prominent. They come out of the bud conduplicate, green, covered with rusty tomentum
beneath, hairy above; when full grown are smooth, dark green above, paler beneath. When
crushed they have a scent similar to a green bell pepper. In autumn they are a rusty
yellow, which make spotting pawpaw groves possible from a long distance. Petioles short and
stout with a prominent adaxial groove. Stipules wanting.
* Flowers: April, with the leaves. Perfect, solitary, axillary, rich red purple, two
inches across, borne on stout, hairy peduncles. Ill smelling. The triloba refers to the
shape of the flower, which is not unlike a tricorner hat.
* Calyx: Sepals three, valvate in bud, ovate, acuminate, pale green, downy.
* Corolla: Petals six, in two rows, imbricate in the bud. Inner row acute, erect,
nectariferous. Outer row broadly ovate, reflexed at maturity. Petals at first are green,
then brown, and finally become dull purple and conspicuously veiny.
* Stamens: Indefinite, densely packed on the globular receptacle. Filaments short;
anthers extrorse, two-celled, opening longitudinally.
* Pistils: Several, on the summit of the receptacle, projecting from the mass of
stamens. Ovary one-celled; stigma sessile; ovules many.
* Fruit: September, October.[1]
[edit] Species
A red-purple, green, and white flower
Asimina reticulata
* Asimina angustifolia Raf. - Slimleaf Pawpaw. Florida, Georgia, and Alabama.
* Asimina incana (W. Bartram) Exell - Woolly Pawpaw. Florida and Georgia.
o Annona incana W. Bartram[2]
* Asimina obovata (Willd.) Nash - Bigflower Pawpaw. Florida.
o Annona obovata Willd.[3]
* Asimina parviflora (Michx.) Dunal - Smallflower Pawpaw. Southern states from Texas to
Virginia.
* Asimina pygmea (W. Bartram) Dunal - Dwarf Pawpaw. Florida and Georgia.
* Asimina reticulata Shuttlw. ex Chapman - Netted Pawpaw. Florida and Georgia.
* Asimina tetramera Small - Fourpetal Pawpaw. Florida (Endangered)
* Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal - Common Pawpaw. Extreme southern Ontario, Canada, and the
eastern United States from New York west to southeast Nebraska, and south to northern
Florida and eastern Texas.
o Annona triloba L.[4]
[edit] Cultivation and uses
Asimina triloba is often called prairie banana because of its banana-like creamy texture
and flavor.
The pawpaw is native to shady, rich bottom lands, where it often forms a dense undergrowth
in the forest. Where it dominates a tract it appears as a thicket of small slender trees,
whose great leaves are borne so close together at the ends of the branches, and which cover
each other so symmetrically, that the effect is to give a peculiar imbricated appearance to
the tree.[1]
Although it is a delicious and nutritious fruit[citation needed], it has never been
cultivated on the scale of apples and peaches, primarily because only frozen fruit will
store or ship well. It is also difficult to transplant because of fragile hairy root
tentacles that tend to break off unless a cluster of moist soil is retained on the root
mass. Cultivars are propagated by chip budding or whip grafting.
In recent years the pawpaw has attracted renewed interest, particularly among organic
growers, as a native fruit which has few to no pests, and which therefore requires no
pesticide use for cultivation. The shipping and storage problem has largely been addressed
by freezing. Among backyard gardeners it also is gaining in popularity because of the
appeal of fresh fruit and because it is relatively low maintenance once planted. The pulp
is used primarily in baked dessert recipes and for juicing fresh pawpaw drink or drink
mixtures (pawpaw, pineapple, banana, lime, lemon and orange tea mix). The pulp can also be
made into a country wine. In many recipes calling for bananas, pawpaw can be used with
volumetric equivalency.
The commercial growing and harvesting of pawpaws is strong in southeast Ohio. The Ohio
Pawpaw Growers' Association annually sponsors the Ohio Pawpaw Festival at Lake Snowden near
Albany, Ohio.
Pawpaw flowers are insect-pollinated, but fruit production is limited since few if any
pollinators are attracted to the flower's faint, or sometimes non-existent scent. Those
insects that are attracted are often scavenging fruit flies, carrion flies and beetles.
Because of difficult pollination, some[who?] may believe the flowers are self-incompatible.
Cross pollination of at least two different varieties of the plant is recommended. The
flowers produce an odor similar to that of rotting meat to attract blowflies or carrion
beetles for cross pollination.[citation needed] Lack of pollination is the most common
cause of poor fruiting, and growers resort to hand pollination, spraying fish emulsion, or
to hanging chicken necks or other meat to attract pollinators. Several species of Asimina
are larval hosts for the Zebra Swallowtail Butterfly.
The leaves, twigs, and bark of the tree also contain natural insecticides known as
acetogenins, which can be used to make an organic pesticide.[5] Pawpaw fruit may be eaten
by foxes, opossums, squirrels and raccoons. However, pawpaw leaves and twigs are seldom
bothered by rabbits or deer.[6]
This colonial tree has a strong tendency to form colonial thickets if left unchecked. It is
ideal for creating a swift-growing habitat particularly in areas where frequent flooding
can threaten erosion. The root systems are capable of holding streambanks steady, and grow
well even in cold hollows with little exposure to winter sunlight.[citation needed]
[edit] History
The earliest documentation of pawpaws is in the 1541 report of the de Soto expedition, who
found Native Americans cultivating it east of the Mississippi River. The Lewis and Clark
Expedition sometimes subsisted on pawpaws during their travels. Chilled pawpaw fruit was a
favorite dessert of George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson planted it at Monticello. The
Ohio Pawpaw Growers' Association lobbied for the pawpaw to be the Ohio state native fruit
in 2006; this was made official in 2009.[
CHE
Cudrania tricuspidata Bur. ex Lavallee
Moraceae
Common Names: Che, Chinese Che, Chinese Mulberry, Cudrang, Mandarin Melon Berry, Silkworm
Thorn.
Distant Affinity: Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), Jackfruit (A. heterophyllus), Fig (Ficus
spp.), Mulberry (Morus spp.), African Breadfruit (Treculis africana).
Origin: The che is native to many parts of eastern Asia from the Shantung and Kiangson
Provinces of China to the Nepalese sub-Himalayas. It became naturalized in Japan many years
ago. In China, the leaves of the che serve as a backup food for silkworms when mulberry
leaves are in short supply. The tree was introduced into England and other parts of Europe
around 1872, and into the U.S. around 1930.
Adaptation: The che requires minimal care and has a tolerance of drought and poor soils
similar to that of the related mulberry. It can be grown in most parts of California and
other parts of the country, withstanding temperatures of -20° F.
DESCRIPTION
Growth Habit: The deciduous trees can eventually grow to about 25 ft. in height, but often
remains a broad, spreading bush or small tree if not otherwise trained when they are young.
Immature wood is thorny but loses its thorns as it matures. Female trees are larger and
more robust than male trees.
Foliage: The alternate leaves resemble those of the mulberry, but are smaller and thinner
and pale yellowish-green in color. The typical form is distinctly trilobate, with the
central lobe sometimes twice as long as the lateral ones, but frequently unlobed leaves of
varied outlines are also found on the same plant. As the plant grows, the tendency seems
towards larger and entire leaves, with at the most indistinct or irregular lobing. The
general form of the leaves comprise many variations between oblong and lanceolate. The che
leafs and blooms late in spring--after apples.
Flowers: The che is dioecious, with male and female flowers on different plants. Appearing
in June, both types of flowers are green and pea-sized. The male flowers turn yellow as the
pollen ripens and is released, while the wind-pollinated female flowers develop many small
stigmas over the surface of the immature fruit. Male plants occasionally have a few female
flowers which will set fruit.
Fruit: Like the related mulberry, the che fruit is not a berry but a collective fruit, in
appearance somewhat like a round mulberry crossed with a lychee, 1 to 2 inches in diameter.
The ripe fruits are an attractive red or maroon-red color with a juicy, rich red flesh
inside and 3 to 6 small brown seeds per fruit. The flavor is quite unlike the vinous
quality of better mulberries. While still firm they are almost tasteless, but when fully
soft ripe they develop a watermelon-like flavor that can be quite delicious. The sugar
content is similar to that of a ripe fig. In colder areas with early leaf drop the bright
red fruit are an attractive sight dangling from smooth, leafless branches.
CULTURE
Location: Ches need a warm, sunny location. They should not be planted near sidewalks since
the fallen fruit will stain. Like the mulberry, the trees are quite wind-resistant. One
method of planting is to put a male and a female plant in a single site, about 1 ft. apart,
and prune to a combined volume of approximately 25% male and 75% female.
Soil: The trees are relatively undemanding, but perform best in a warm, well-drained soil,
ideally a deep loam.
Irrigation: Although somewhat drought-resistant, ches need to be watered in dry seasons. In
summer dry California a deep watering about every two weeks is recommended. If the roots
become too dry during drought, the plant may began to defoliate and the unripe fruit is
likely to drop.
Fertilization: An annual application of a balanced fertilizer such as 10:10:10 NPK in late
spring will maintain satisfactory growth. Nitrogen is the only element likely to be needed
in California.
Pruning: The trees need regular pruning to control their shape. The branches formed the
previous season should be pruned to half their length. The branchlets on the remaining part
of the branches should also be trimmed about 50%. A summer pruning of the male plant is
also necessary when planted in a single site with the female. To grow as a tree, in
addition to pruning the lateral branches, the leading branch may also need to be staked to
point it in a vertical direction. Trees grafted onto Osage orange (Maclura pomifera)
rootstock tend to be more robust and grow in a more upright fashion.
Propagation: The che is readily grown from seed, although the plants can take up to 10
years to bear. Seeds should be sown as soon as extracted from the fruit. The plants are
often propagated from softwood cuttings taken in midsummer and treated with rooting
hormone. The che is also easily grafted to Osage orange rootstock using either a cleft or
whip-and-tongue graft.
Pests and Diseases: No pests or diseases have been noted. The ripe fruit is attractive to
birds, and deer will browse on both the fruit and foliage.
Harvest: Ches begin to bear at an early age and mature trees can produce as much as 400
pounds of fruit. The fruits ripen around November in California. Unlike mulberries, the
ripe fruits do not separate easily from the tree and must be individually picked. It is
important that the fruits be thoroughly ripe to be at their best. A darker shade of red
with some blackening of the skin is a good indication of full ripeness. The fruit will keep
for several days in a refrigerator in a covered dish. The fruits can be eaten out of hand
or cooked in various ways. Cooking with other fruits that can contribute some tartness
improves the taste. Mixing the ripe fruit in a blender and straining out the seeds yields a
beautiful and delicious che "nectar".
Commercial Potential: In China and other parts of East Asia the fruit is sometimes found in
local markets, but is relatively unknown commercially elsewhere. The attractive color and
reasonable shelf life of the che seem to indicate that with a little effort, there could be
a niche for it in farmer's markets and specialty stores. There also appears to be some
demand for the fruit in Asian markets. Better selection should further increase the
marketing potential of the che. A seedless fruit or one with with a bit of tartness would
be a great improvement, as would earlier ripening cultivars that separate readily from the
branches.
GOUMI
GOUMI (Eleagnus multiflora) This fast-growing shrub has many excellent qualities aside from
its small red fruit called goumi berries. Light, lilac-scented flowers appear in April or
May, developing into small fruit that can be eaten raw or cooked. The fruit is astringent
until ripe, but can be made into pies and jams if picked a little early. Goumi berries are
a rich source of vitamins A, C amd E and are under investigation as anti-cancer agents. The
deciduous bush can grow in almost any well-drained soil (including by the seaside) and
tolerates drought and pollution. Fixes nitrogen and can increase fruit yields when
interplanted in your orchard. Self fertile. Zones 7-9
SWEET SCARLET GOUMI (Eleagnus multiflora) Wouldn't you love to have a smallish (4-6ft.)
shrub that is self-fertile and produces fragrant creamy white flowers in May followed by
tasty (and nutritious) little red berries the size of small pie cherries? Goumi fruit is
delicious fresh, dried, or in a pie or jam. Scarlet Sweet is a Ukrainian variety. This easy
little shrub adapts well to any well-drained site in at least a half-day of sun, and it's
not bothered by pests or diseases. In addition, it's actually a nitrogen-fixing plant,
meaning it requires little fertilizer and makes a beneficial companion to other nearby
fruiting plants. Bees love the flowers too! Goumi is also highly valued as a medicinal
plant for many purposes. Begins bearing young, at 2-3 years. Zones 4-7.
Wolfberry, commercially called goji berry,
is the common name for the fruit of two very closely related species: Lycium barbarum
(Chinese: 寧夏枸杞; pinyin: Níngxià gǒuqǐ) and L. chinense (Chinese: 枸杞; pinyin: gǒuqǐ), two
species of boxthorn in the family Solanaceae (which also includes the potato, tomato,
eggplant, deadly nightshade, chili pepper, and tobacco). It is native to southeastern
Europe and Asia.[1]
It is also known as Chinese wolfberry, mede berry, barbary matrimony vine, bocksdorn, Duke
of Argyll's tea tree, Murali (in India),[2] red medlar, or matrimony vine.[3] Unrelated to
the plant's geographic origin, the names Tibetan goji and Himalayan goji are in common use
in the health food market for products from this plant.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Description
o 1.1 Leaves and flower
o 1.2 Fruit
* 2 Etymology
* 3 Significance
* 4 Cultivation
o 4.1 China
+ 4.1.1 Pesticide and fungicide use
o 4.2 United Kingdom
+ 4.2.1 Importation of mature plants
* 5 Uses
o 5.1 Culinary
o 5.2 Medicinal
o 5.3 Safety issues
* 6 Nutrient content
o 6.1 Macronutrients
o 6.2 Micronutrients and phytochemicals
o 6.3 Wolfberry polysaccharides
+ 6.3.1 Criticism
o 6.4 Functional food and beverage applications
* 7 Marketing
o 7.1 Commercial products marketed outside Asia
o 7.2 Marketing claims under scrutiny in Europe
o 7.3 Marketing claims under scrutiny in Canada and the United States
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 10 Bibliography
* 11 External links
[edit] Description
This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009)
Lycium barbarum illustration from Flora von Deutschland, by Prof. Dr. Otto Wilhelm Thomé,
Österreich und der Schweiz 1885, Gera, Germany.
Wolfberry species are deciduous woody perennial plants, growing 1–3 m high. L. chinense is
grown in the south of China and tends to be somewhat shorter, while L. barbarum is grown in
the north, primarily in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and tends to be somewhat taller.
[edit] Leaves and flower
Wolfberry leaves and flower
Wolfberry leaves form on the shoot either in an alternating arrangement or in bundles of up
to three, each having a shape that is either lanceolate (shaped like a spearhead longer
than it is wide) or ovate (egg-like). Leaf dimensions are 7-cm wide by 3.5-cm broad with
blunted or round tips.
The flowers grow in groups of one to three in the leaf axils. The calyx (eventually
ruptured by the growing berry) consists of bell-shaped or tubular sepals forming short,
triangular lobes. The corolla are lavender or light purple, 9–14 mm wide with five or six
lobes shorter than the tube. The stamens are structured with filaments longer than the
anthers. The anthers are longitudinally dehiscent.
In the northern hemisphere, flowering occurs from June through September and berry
maturation from August to October, depending on the latitude, altitude, and climate.
[edit] Fruit
These species produce a bright orange-red, ellipsoid berry 1–2-cm deep. The number of seeds
in each berry varies widely based on cultivar and fruit size, containing anywhere between
10–60 tiny yellow seeds that are compressed with a curved embryo. The berries ripen from
July to October in the northern hemisphere.
[edit] Etymology
"Wolfberry" is the most commonly used English name[citation needed], while gǒuqǐ (枸杞) is
the Chinese name for the berry producing plant. In Chinese, the berries themselves are
called gǒuqǐzi (枸杞子), with zi meaning "seed" or specifically "berry". Other common names
are "the Duke of Argyll's Tea Tree"[3] and "matrimony vine".[3] Rarely, wolfberry is also
known in pharmacological references as Lycii fructus, meaning "Lycium fruit" in Latin.
The origin of the common name "wolfberry" is unknown, perhaps resulting from confusion over
the genus name, which resembles "lycos", the Greek word for wolf. In the English-speaking
world, "goji berry" has been used since the early 21st century as a synonym for
"wolfberry". The word "goji" is pronunciation of gǒuqǐ in Taiwanese Hokkien, the Mandarin
name of the plant, developed by those marketing wolfberry products in the West.
Lycium, the genus name, is derived from the ancient southern Anatolian region of Lycia
(Λυκία).[4] L. chinense was first described by the Scottish botanist Philip Miller in the
eighth edition of his The Gardener's Dictionary, published in 1768.
In Japan the plant is known as kuko (クコ) and the fruits are called kuko no mi (クコ の 実) or
kuko no kajitsu (クコ の 果 実); in Korea the berries are known as gugija (hangul: 구기자; hanja: 枸
杞子)[13]; in Vietnam the fruit is called "kỷ tử" (杞子), "cẩu kỷ" (枸杞), "cẩu kỷ tử"(枸杞子) but
the plant and its leaves are known more popularly as "củ khởi"; and in Thailand the plant
is called găo gèe (เก๋ากี้). In Tibetan the plant is called dretsherma
(Tibetwolfberryspelling.png), with dre meaning "ghost" and tsherma meaning "thorn"; and the
name of the fruit is dretshermǟ dräwu (Wolfberrytibetanname.png), with dräwu meaning
"fruit".[citation needed]
[edit] Significance
Since the early 21st century in the United States and other such developed countries, there
has been rapidly growing attention for wolfberries for their nutrient value and antioxidant
content, leading to a profusion of consumer products. Such rapid commercial development
extends from wolfberry having a high ranking among superfruits[5] expected to be part of a
multi-billion dollar market by 2011.[6][7]
[edit] Cultivation
[edit] China
The majority of commercially produced wolfberries come from the Ningxia Hui Autonomous
Region of north-central China and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of western China,
where they are grown on plantations. In Zhongning County, Ningxia, wolfberry plantations
typically range between 100 and 1000 acres (or 500–6000 mu) in area. As of 2005, over 10
million mu have been planted with wolfberries in Ningxia.[8]
Cultivated along the fertile aggradational floodplains of the Yellow River for more than
600 years, Ningxia wolfberries have earned a reputation throughout Asia for premium quality
sometimes described commercially as "red diamonds".[9] Government releases of annual
wolfberry production, premium fruit grades, and export are based on yields from Ningxia,
the region recognized with
* The largest annual harvest in China, accounting for 42% (13 million kg, 2001) of the
nation's total yield of wolfberries, estimated at approximately 33 million kg (72 million
lb) in 2001.
* Formation of an industrial association of growers, processors, marketers, and
scholars of wolfberry cultivation to promote the berry's commercial and export potential.
* The nation's only source of therapeutic grade ("superior-grade") wolfberries used by
practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine.[10]
In addition, commercial volumes of wolfberries grow in the Chinese regions of Inner
Mongolia, Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Hebei. When ripe, the oblong, red berries
are tender and must be picked carefully or shaken from the vine into trays to avoid
spoiling. The fruits are preserved by drying them in full sun on open trays or by
mechanical dehydration employing a progressively increasing series of heat exposure over 48
hours.
Wolfberries are celebrated each August in Ningxia with an annual festival coinciding with
the berry harvest.[8] Originally held in Ningxia's capital, Yinchuan, the festival has been
based since 2000 in Zhongning County, an important center of wolfberry cultivation for the
region.[8] As Ningxia's borders merge with three deserts, wolfberries are also planted to
control erosion and reclaim irrigable soils from desertification.[11]
China, the main supplier of wolfberry products in the world, had total exports generating
US$120 million in 2004. This production derived from 82,000 hectares farmed nationwide,
yielding 95,000 tons of wolfberries.[9]
[edit] Pesticide and fungicide use
Organochlorine pesticides are conventionally used in commercial wolfberry cultivation to
mitigate destruction of the delicate berries by insects. Since the early 21st century, high
levels of insecticide residues (including fenvalerate, cypermethrin, and acetamiprid) and
fungicide residues (such as triadimenol and isoprothiolane), have been detected by the
United States Food and Drug Administration in some imported wolfberries and wolfberry
products of Chinese origin, leading to the seizure of these products.[12][13]
China's Green Food Standard, administered by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture's China
Green Food Development Center, does permit some amount of pesticide and herbicide
use.[14][15][16] Agriculture in the Tibetan plateau (where many "Himalayan" or
"Tibetan"-branded berries originate) conventionally uses fertilizers and pesticides, making
organic claims for berries originating here dubious.[17]
[edit] United Kingdom
The Duke of Argyll introduced the plant into the United Kingdom in the 1730s where it is
known as Duke of Argyll's Tea Tree. It was and still is used for hedging, especially in
coastal districts. Its red berries are attractive to a wide variety of British birds.[18]
The plant continues to grow wild in UK hedgerows. On 15 January 2003, the Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs launched a project to improve the regulations
protecting traditional countryside hedgerows, and specifically mentioned Duke of Argyll's
Tea Tree as one of the species to be found growing in hedges located in Suffolk Sandlings,
Hadleigh, Bawdsey, near Ipswich, and Walberswick.[19]
The wolfberry has been naturalized as an ornamental and edible plant in the UK for nearly
300 years. On June 18, 2007, the FSA (UK Food Standards Agency) stated that there was a
significant history of the fruit being consumed in Europe before 1997, and has removed it
from the Novel Foods list.[20] It is now legal to sell the wolfberry in the UK as a food as
reported by the British Food Standards Agency.[21](also see discussion below, Marketing
claims under scrutiny in Europe).
[edit] Importation of mature plants
Importation of wolfberry plants into the United Kingdom from most countries outside Europe
is illegal, due to the possibility that as an introduced species they could be vectors of
diseases attacking Solanaceae crops, such as potato or tomato.[22]
[edit] Uses
Dried wolfberries
Wolfberries are almost never found in their fresh form outside of their production regions,
and are usually sold in open boxes and small packages in dried form. The amount of
desiccation varies in wolfberries: some are soft and somewhat tacky in the manner of
raisins, while others may be very hard.
[edit] Culinary
As a food, dried wolfberries are traditionally cooked before consumption. Dried wolfberries
are often added to rice congee and almond jelly, as well as used in Chinese tonic soups, in
combination with chicken or pork, vegetables, and other herbs such as wild yam, Astragalus
membranaceus, Codonopsis pilosula, and licorice root. The berries are also boiled as an
herbal tea, often along with chrysanthemum flowers and/or red jujubes, or with tea,
particularly pu-erh tea,[citation needed] and packaged teas are also available.
Various wines containing wolfberries (called gǒuqǐ jiǔ; 枸杞酒) are also produced,[23][24]
including some that are a blend of grape wine and wolfberries.
At least one Chinese company also produces wolfberry beer, and New Belgium Brewery makes
their seasonal Springboard ale with wolfberries used as flavoring. Since the early 21st
century, an instant coffee product containing wolfberry extract has been produced in China.
Young wolfberry shoots and leaves are also grown commercially as a leaf
vegetable.photorecipe
[edit] Medicinal
Marketing literature for wolfberry products including several "goji juices" suggest that
wolfberry polysaccharides have extensive biological effects and health benefits, although
none of these claims have been supported by peer-reviewed research.
A May 2008 clinical study published by the peer-reviewed Journal of Alternative and
Complementary Medicine indicated that parametric data, including body weight, did not show
significant differences between subjects receiving Lycium barbarum berry juice and subjects
receiving the placebo; the study concluded that subjective measures of health were improved
and suggested further research in humans was necessary.[25] This study, however, was
subject to a variety of criticisms concerning its experimental design and
interpretations.[26]
Published studies have also reported possible medicinal benefits of Lycium barbarum,
especially due to its antioxidant properties,[27] including potential benefits against
cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases,[28][29] vision-related diseases[30] (such as
age-related macular degeneration and glaucoma[31]), having neuroprotective properties[32]
or as an anticancer[33] and immunomodulatory agent.[34]
Wolfberry leaves may be used to make tea,[35] together with Lycium root bark (called
dìgǔpí; 地 骨 皮 in Chinese), for traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). A glucopyranoside
(namely (+)-Lyoniresinol-3α-O-β-d-glucopyranoside) and phenolic amides
(dihydro-N-caffeoyltyramine, trans-N-feruloyloctopamine, trans-N-caffeoyltyramine and
cis-N-caffeoyltyramine) isolated from wolfberry root bark have inhibitory activity in vitro
against human pathogenic bacteria and fungi.[36][37]
[edit] Safety issues
Two published case reports described elderly women who experienced increased bleeding,
expressed as an elevated INR, after drinking quantities of wolfberry tea.[38][39] Further
in vitro testing revealed that the tea inhibited warfarin metabolism, providing evidence
for possible interaction between warfarin and undefined wolfberry phytochemicals.[38]
Atropine, a toxic alkaloid found in other members of the Solanaceae family, occurs
naturally in wolfberry fruit. The atropine concentrations of berries from China and
Thailand are variable, with a maximum content of 19 ppb, below the likely toxic amount.[40]
[edit] Nutrient content
[edit] Macronutrients
Wolfberry contains significant percentages of a day's macronutrient needs – carbohydrates,
protein, fat and dietary fiber. About 68% of the mass of dried wolfberries exists as
carbohydrate, 12% as protein, and 10% each as fiber and fat, giving a total caloric value
in a 100 gram serving of 370 (kilo)calories.
[edit] Micronutrients and phytochemicals
Wolfberries contain many nutrients and phytochemicals including
* 11 essential and 22 trace dietary minerals
* 18 amino acids
* 6 essential vitamins
* 8 polysaccharides and 6 monosaccharides
* 5 unsaturated fatty acids, including the essential fatty acids, linoleic acid and
alpha-linolenic acid
* beta-sitosterol and other phytosterols
* 5 carotenoids, including beta-carotene and zeaxanthin (below), lutein, lycopene and
cryptoxanthin, a xanthophyll
* numerous phenolic pigments (phenols) associated with antioxidant properties
Select examples given below are for 100 grams of dried berries.
* Calcium. Wolfberries contain 112 mg per 100 gram serving, providing about 8-10% of
the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI).
* Potassium. Wolfberries contain 1,132 mg per 100 grams dried fruit, giving about 24%
of the DRI.
* Iron. Wolfberries have 9 mg iron per 100 grams (100% DRI).
* Zinc. 2 mg per 100 grams dried fruit (18% DRI).
* Selenium. 100 grams of dried wolfberries contain 50 micrograms (91% DRI)
* Riboflavin (vitamin B2). At 1.3 mg, 100 grams of dried wolfberries provide 100% of
DRI.
* Vitamin C. Vitamin C content in dried wolfberries has a wide range (from different
sources[citation needed]) from 29 mg per 100 grams to as high as 148 mg per 100 grams
(respectively, 32% and 163% DRI).
Wolfberries also contain numerous phytochemicals for which there are no established DRI
values. Examples:
* Beta-carotene: 7 mg per 100 grams dried fruit.
* Zeaxanthin. Reported values for zeaxanthin content in dried wolfberries vary
considerably, from 2.4 mg per 100 grams [41] to 82.4 mg per 100 grams [42] to 200 mg per
100 grams.[43] The higher values would make wolfberry one of the richest edible plant
sources known for zeaxanthin content.[44] Up to 77% of total carotenoids present in
wolfberry exist as zeaxanthin.[45]
* Polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are a major constituent of wolfberries, representing
up to 31% of pulp weight.
[edit] Wolfberry polysaccharides
One study[46] published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology found that:
* Endogenous lipid peroxidation, and decreased antioxidant activities, as assessed by
superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and total
antioxidant capacity (TAOC), and immune function were observed in aged mice and restored to
normal levels in Lycium polysaccharide-treated groups. Antioxidant activities of Lycium
barbarum polysaccharides were found to be comparable with normal antioxidant, vitamin C.
Furthemore, adding vitamin C to the polysaccharide treatment further increased in vivo
antioxidant activity of the polysaccharides.